Editing Hybrid vehicle (section)

===Environmental impact of hybrid car battery===
{{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2008|section}}

Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Giansoldati|first1=Marco|last2=Rotaris|first2=Lucia|last3=Scorrano|first3=Mariangela|last4=Danielis|first4=Romeo|date=March 2020|title=Does electric car knowledge influence car choice? Evidence from a hybrid choice model|journal=Research in Transportation Economics|volume=80|pages=100826|doi=10.1016/j.retrec.2020.100826|hdl=11368/2965242 |s2cid=216309011|issn=0739-8859|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/does-hybrid-car-production-waste-offset-hybrid-benefits.htm |title=Does hybrid car production waste offset hybrid benefits?|date=2010-12-06 |website=HowStuffWorks |access-date=2020-04-04}}</ref> Today, most hybrid car batteries are [[Lithium-ion]], which has higher energy density than [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|nickel–metal hydride batteries]] and is more environmentally friendly than [[lead–acid battery|lead-based batteries]] which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today.<ref name="Warner 2019 43–77">{{citation|last=Warner|first=John T.|title=Lithium-ion battery operation |date=2019 |work=Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries|pages=43–77|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-814778-8.00003-x|isbn=978-0-12-814778-8|s2cid=181737522}}</ref>

There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium-ion is the least toxic of the batteries mentioned above.<ref>Environmental impact of hybrid car battery. (2008). Retrieved December 09, 2009 from [http://www.hybridcars.com/forums/environmental-impact-hybrid-car-battery.html Hybridcars.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217182516/http://www.hybridcars.com/forums/environmental-impact-hybrid-car-battery.html |date=2011-12-17 }}</ref>

The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type previously used in hybrids—are much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one source.<ref>Hybrid Cars. (2006). Retrieved December 9, 2009 from Hybrid Battery Toxicity, [http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-toxicity.html Hybridcars.com]</ref> Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.umass.edu/p139eck/2012/12/04/how-do-hybrid-vehicles-impact-the-environment/|title=How Do Hybrid Vehicles Impact the Environment? &#124; Physics 139 eck|date=4 December 2012 }}</ref> In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gelani |first = S |author2=M. Morano | year = 1980 |title=Congenital abnormalities in nickel poisoning in chick embryos |publisher = Springer | journal = Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology | pmid=7369783 | volume=9 | issue=1 | pages=17–22 | doi=10.1007/bf01055496|bibcode = 1980ArECT...9...17G | s2cid = 7631750 }}/</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2003.08.021 | volume=533 | issue=1–2 | title=Nickel carcinogenesis | journal=Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis | pages=67–97 | pmid=14643413 | date=December 2003 | last1 = Kasprzak | first1 = KS | last2 = Sunderman | first2 = FW | last3 = Salnikow | first3 = K| bibcode=2003MRFMM.533...67K | url= https://zenodo.org/record/1259231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Comparative carcinogenic effects of nickel subsulfide, nickel oxide, or nickel sulfate hexahydrate chronic exposures in the lung. |vauthors=Dunnick JK, etal |pmid=7585584 | volume=55 |issue=22 |date=November 1995 |journal=Cancer Research |pages=5251–6}}</ref> The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode. However Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries have fallen out of favour in hybrid vehicles as various lithium-ion chemistries have become more mature to market.

The lithium-ion battery has become a market leader in this segment due to its high energy density, stability, and cost when compared to other technologies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/global-lithium-ion-battery-capacity-may-rise-five-fold-by-2030-wood-mackenzie-2022-03-22/#:~:text=March%2022%20(Reuters)%20%2D%20Global,will%20remain%20tight%20this%20year.|title = Global lithium-ion battery capacity may rise five-fold by 2030 - Wood Mackenzie|newspaper = Reuters|date = 22 March 2022}}</ref> A market leader in this area is [[Panasonic]] with their partnership with [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/573347/tesla-4680-battery-panasonic-insight/|title = Panasonic Energy CEO Shares Info About Tesla's 4680 Battery Cells}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/technology/2022/03/11/tesla-for-25000-new-panasonic-battery-set-to-cut-cost-of-electric-cars/|title = Tesla for $25,000? New Panasonic battery set to cut cost of electric cars|date = 11 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfbusiness.com/panasonic-readies-new-battery-tesla-sees-as-key-to-25000-evs/|title = Panasonic readies new battery Tesla sees as key to $25,000 EVs|date = 14 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/573698/panasonic-scouting-us-sites-new-4680-battery-cell-factory/|title = Panasonic Said to Scout US Sites for New 4680 Battery Cell Factory}}</ref>

The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel–metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well.<ref name="Warner 2019 43–77"/> The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle.<ref>{{Citation|title=Life Cycle Testing of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules|publisher=SAE International|doi=10.4271/j2288_199701}}</ref> Additionally, the use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions helping to prevent global warming.
<ref>Environmental Activities. (2009). Retrieved December 01, 2009, from Lithium-ion battery for Hybrid Electric Vehicles: [http://www.hitachi.com/environment/showcase/solution/industrial/lithiumion.html Hitachi.com]
 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220100842/http://www.hitachi.com/environment/showcase/solution/industrial/lithiumion.html |date=2009-12-20 }}</ref>

Lithium-ion batteries are also safer to recycle, with [[Volkswagen Group]] pioneering processes to recycle lithium-ion batteries;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2019/02/lithium-to-lithium-manganese-to-manganese.html|title=Battery recycling plant|website=www.volkswagenag.com|date=19 September 2023 }}</ref> this is also being chased by various other large companies, such as [[BMW]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/436066/bmw-group-ev-battery-recycling-rate-96/|title = BMW Group to Take EV Battery Recycling Rate to 96%}}</ref> [[Audi]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://internetofbusiness.com/audi-and-bmw-team-up-with-umicore-on-ev-battery-recycling/|title = Audi and BMW team up with Umicore on EV battery recycling|date = 29 October 2018}}</ref> [[Mercedes-Benz Group|Mercedes-Benz]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedriven.io/2022/03/15/mercedes-benz-to-build-battery-recycling-plant-with-australias-neometals/|title=Mercedes-Benz to build battery recycling plant with Australia's Neometals|date=14 March 2022}}</ref> and [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tesla.com/en_AU/support/sustainability-recycling|title=Sustainability|date=26 September 2018}}</ref> The main goal within many of these companies is to combat disinformation about the nature of lithium batteries, primarily that they are not recyclable, which primarily stem from articles discussing the difficulties of recycling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://greencitizen.com/lithium-ion-battery-recycling/|title = The Truth About Lithium Ion Battery Recycling|date = 31 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28 | title=It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220105-lithium-batteries-big-unanswered-question|title = Lithium batteries' big unanswered question}}</ref>