Editing History of Germany (section)

==1648–1815==
===Rise of Prussia===
[[File:Acprussiamap2.gif|thumb|Prussia became a European great power after 1763 and Austria's greatest rival in Germany.]]
[[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]], ruler of [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] since 1640 and later called the Great [[Prince-elector|Elector]], acquired [[Province of Pomerania (1653–1815)|East Pomerania]] via the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648. He reorganized his loose and scattered territories and managed to throw off the vassalage of Prussia under the Kingdom of Poland during the [[Second Northern War]].<ref>Philip G. Dwyer, ed. ''The rise of Prussia: Rethinking Prussian history, 1700–1830'' pp. 1–26.</ref> In order to address the demographic problem of Prussia's largely rural population of about three million, he attracted the immigration and settlement of French [[Huguenots]] in urban areas. Many became craftsmen and entrepreneurs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hornung |first1=Erik |title=Immigration and the Diffusion of Technology: The Huguenot Diaspora in Prussia |journal=American Economic Review |date=2014 |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=84–122 |doi=10.1257/aer.104.1.84 |hdl=10419/37227 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Frederick William I of Prussia|King Frederick William I]], known as the ''Soldier King'', who reigned from 1713 to 1740, established the structures for the highly centralized Prussian state and raised a professional army, that was to play a central role.{{Sfn|Clark|2006|pp=78–94}} He also successfully operated a command economy that some historians consider mercantilist.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gawthrop |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VodSxz7Haq4C&pg=PA266 |title=Pietism and the Making of Eighteenth-Century Prussia |date=2 November 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5210-3012-0 |page=266 |language=en |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kahler |first=Erich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_iiNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT279 |title=Man The Measure: A New Approach To History |date=5 March 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-4297-0934-0 |page=279 |language=en |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref>

The total population of Germany (in its [[German Empire|1914 territorial extent]]) grew from 16 million in 1700 to 17 million in 1750 and reached 24 million in 1800. The 18th-century economy noticeably profited from widespread practical application of the Scientific method as greater yields and a more reliable agricultural production and the introduction of hygienic standards positively affected the birth rate – death rate balance.{{Sfn|Sheehan|1989|pp=75, 207–291, 291–323, 324–371, 802–820}}

===Wars===
{{Main|Nine Years' War|Great Turkish War|Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718}}
[[File:Eugene of SavoyVS.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Prince Eugene of Savoy]], [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian]] commander during the Austro-Turkish wars]]
[[Louis XIV]] of France waged a series of successful wars in order to extend the French territory. He occupied [[Lorraine]] (1670) and annexed the remainder of Alsace (1678–1681) that included the free imperial city of [[Strasbourg|Straßburg]]. At the start of the [[Nine Years' War]], he also invaded the [[Electorate of the Palatinate]] (1688–1697).{{Sfn|Sagarra|1977|page=22}} Louis established a number of [[Chambers of Reunion|courts]] whose sole function was to reinterpret historic decrees and treaties, the [[Treaties of Nijmegen]] (1678) and the [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648) in particular in favor of his policies of conquest. He considered the conclusions of these courts, the ''Chambres de réunion'' as sufficient justification for his boundless annexations. Louis' forces operated inside the Holy Roman Empire largely unopposed, because all available imperial contingents fought in Austria in the [[Great Turkish War]]. The [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]] of 1689 took up arms against France and countered any further military advances of Louis. The conflict ended in 1697 as both parties agreed to peace talks after either side had realized, that a total victory was financially unattainable. The [[Treaty of Ryswick]] provided for the return of the Lorraine and Luxembourg to the empire and the abandoning of French claims to the Palatinate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=treaty of Ryswick |encyclopedia=Oxford Reference |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100435143 }}</ref>

After the last-minute [[Battle of Vienna|relief of Vienna]] from a siege and the imminent seizure by a [[Ottoman Army (15th-19th centuries)|Turkish force]] in 1683, the combined troops of the [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]], that had been founded the following year, embarked on the military containment of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and reconquered [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]] in 1687.<ref name="Jankowski2014">{{Cite book |first=Tomek E. |last=Jankowski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1p5wAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT274 |title=Eastern Europe!: Everything You Need to Know About the History (and More) of a Region that Shaped Our World and Still Does |date=20 May 2014 |publisher=Steerforth Press |isbn=978-0-9850-6233-0 |page=274}}</ref> The [[Papal States]], the Holy Roman Empire, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], the [[Republic of Venice]] and since 1686 [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] had joined the league under the leadership of [[Pope Innocent XI]]. [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]], who served under emperor Leopold I, took supreme command in 1697 and decisively defeated the Ottomans in a series of spectacular battles and
manoeuvres. The 1699 [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] marked the end of the Great Turkish War and Prince Eugene continued his service for the [[Habsburg monarchy]] as president of the [[Hofkriegsrat|War Council]]. He effectively ended Turkish rule over most of the territorial states in the [[Balkans]] during the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718]]. The [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] left Austria to freely establish royal domains in Serbia and the Banat and maintain hegemony in [[Southeast Europe]], on which the future [[Austrian Empire]] was based.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eugen Prinz von Savoyen |url=https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz52925.html |access-date=21 March 2019 |publisher=Deutsche Biographie}}</ref><ref name="Hochedlinger2015">{{Cite book |first=Michael |last=Hochedlinger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbpACwAAQBAJ |title=Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797 |date=22 December 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-3178-8793-5}}</ref>

===Enlightened absolutism===
[[File:Friedrich der Große (1781 or 1786) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia]] reigned from 1740 to 1786.]]

[[Frederick the Great|Frederick II "the Great"]] is best known for his military genius and unique utilisation of the highly organized army to make Prussia one of the great powers in Europe as well as [[Miracle of the House of Brandenburg|escaping from almost certain national disaster]] at the last minute. He was also an artist, author and philosopher, who conceived and promoted the concept of [[enlightened absolutism]].<ref>Dennis Showalter, ''Frederick the Great: A Military History'' (2012)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ritter |first=Gerhard |url=https://archive.org/details/stayawayjoenovel00cush |title=Frederick the Great: A Historical Profile |publisher=University of California Press |date=1974 |isbn=978-0-5200-2775-6 |editor-last=Peter Peret |location=Berkeley |author-link=Gerhard Ritter |url-access=registration |orig-date=1936}}; called by [[Russell Weigley]] "The best introduction to Frederick the Great and indeed to European warfare in his time." {{Cite book|author=Russell Frank Weigley|title=The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abPUKDlNmRsC&pg=PA550|date=2004|publisher=Indiana U.P.|page=550|isbn=978-0-2532-1707-3}}</ref>

Austrian empress [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] succeeded in bringing about a favorable conclusion for her in [[War of the Austrian Succession|the 1740 to 1748 war]] for recognition of her succession to the throne. However, [[Silesia]] was permanently lost to Prussia as a consequence of the [[Silesian Wars]] and the [[Seven Years' War]]. The 1763 [[Treaty of Hubertusburg]] ruled that Austria and Saxony had to relinquish all claims to Silesia. Prussia, that had nearly doubled its territory was eventually recognized as a great European power with the consequence that the politics of the following century were fundamentally influenced by [[Austria–Prussia rivalry|German dualism]], the rivalry of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in Central Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jörg Ulbert |title=A History of Franco-German Relations in Europe |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland AG |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-3493-7221-8 |pages=39–48 |chapter=France and German Dualism, 1756–1871 |doi=10.1057/9780230616639_4}}</ref>

The concept of enlightened absolutism, although rejected by the nobility and citizenry, was advocated in [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]] and implemented since 1763. Prussian king [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II]] defended the idea in an essay and argued that the [[Benevolent dictatorship|benevolent monarch]] simply is the ''first servant of the state'', who effects his absolute political power for the benefit of the population as a whole. A number of legal reforms (e.g. the abolition of torture and the emancipation of the rural population and the Jews), the reorganization of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], the introduction of compulsory education for boys and girls and promotion of religious tolerance, among others, caused rapid social and economic development.<ref name="Schui2013">{{Cite book |first=Florian |last=Schui |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6xahmxWS3YC&pg=PA92 |title=Rebellious Prussians: Urban Political Culture Under Frederick the Great and His Successors |date=14 March 2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-1995-9396-5 |page=92}}</ref>

During 1772 to 1795 Prussia instigated the [[partitions of Poland]] by occupying the western territories of the former [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Austria and [[Russian Empire|Russia]] resolved to acquire the remaining lands with the effect that Poland ceased to exist as a sovereign state until 1918.<ref>Lucjan R. Lewitter, "The Partitions of Poland" in A. Goodwyn, ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: vol 8 1763–93'' (1965) pp. 333–359</ref>

===Smaller states===
[[Image:Residenzschloss Ludwigsburg.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Ludwigsburg Palace]] in Württemberg]]
[[File:Karl Friedrich von Baden.jpg|thumb|upright|Karl Friedrich ruled Baden from 1738 to 1811.]]
The smaller German states were overshadowed by Prussia and Austria. [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] had a [[rural economics|rural economy]]. [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]] was in economically good shape, although numerous wars had taken their toll. During the time when Prussia rose rapidly within Germany, Saxony was distracted by foreign affairs. The House of Wettin concentrated on acquiring and then holding on to the Polish throne which was ultimately unsuccessful.{{Sfn|Holborn|1964|pp=291–299}}{{Clarify|date=March 2022}}<!-- Please provide some quotes. Which duke? Granted, I'm looking at the 1982 edition but if the writer deleted that much from his book, these parts probably should not be here. Other than Bavaria having a rural economy, I do not see lethargy, dogs, mistresses, Wettin, government being mismanaged et al. mentioned anywhere; also, that rulers of smaller German states were largely irresponsible and lavish people during almost a century is quite a broad generalization -->

Many of the smaller states of Germany were run by bishops, who in reality were from powerful noble families and showed scant interest in religion. While none of the later ecclesial rulers reached the outstanding reputation of Mainz' [[Johann Philipp von Schönborn]] or Münster's [[Christoph Bernhard von Galen]], some of them promoted [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] like the benevolent and progressive [[Franz Ludwig von Erthal]] in [[Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg|Würzburg]] and [[Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg|Bamberg]].{{Sfn|Holborn|1964|pp=299–302}}

In [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hesse-Kassel]], the Landgrave [[Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel|Frederick II]], ruled from 1760 to 1785 as an enlightened despot, and raised money by renting soldiers ([[Hessian (soldier)|called "Hessians"]]) to [[Great Britain]] to help fight the [[American Revolutionary War]]. He combined Enlightenment ideas with Christian values, [[Cameralism|cameralist]] plans for central control of the economy, and a militaristic approach toward diplomacy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ingrao |first=Charles W. |title=The Hessian Mercenary State: Ideas, Institutions, and Reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785 |date=2003}}</ref>

[[History of Hanover (region)|Hanover]] did not have to support a lavish court—its rulers were also kings of England and resided in London. [[George III]], elector (ruler) from 1760 to 1820, never once visited Hanover. The local nobility who ran the country opened the [[University of Göttingen]] in 1737; it soon became a world-class intellectual center. [[History of Baden-Württemberg|Baden]] sported perhaps the best government of the smaller states. [[Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden|Karl Friedrich]] ruled for 73 years and was an enthusiast for the Enlightenment; he abolished serfdom in 1783.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liebel |first=Helen P. |date=1965 |title=Enlightened bureaucracy versus enlightened despotism in Baden, 1750–1792 |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=1–132 |doi=10.2307/1005911 |jstor=1005911}}</ref>

The smaller states failed to form coalitions with each other, and were eventually overwhelmed by Prussia who swallowed up many of them between 1807 and 1871.{{Sfn|Holborn|1964|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng01holb/page/291 291]–302}}

===Social changes===
{{Main|Social changes in 18th to 19th-century Prussia}}
[[Prussia]] underwent major [[social change]] between the mid-17th and mid-18th centuries as the [[nobility]] declined as the traditional [[aristocracy]] struggled to compete with the rising [[merchant class]],<ref>Marion W. Gray, ''Productive men, reproductive women: the agrarian household and the emergence of separate spheres during the German Enlightenment'' (2000).</ref> which developed into a new [[Bourgeoisie]] middle class,{{Sfn|Nipperdey|1996|loc=ch 2}}<ref>Marion W. Gray and June K. Burton, "Bourgeois Values in the Rural Household, 1810–1840: The New Domesticity in Germany", ''The Consortium on Revolutionary Europe, 1750–1850'' 23 (1994): 449–456.</ref><ref>Eda Sagarra, ''An introduction to Nineteenth century Germany'' (1980) pp. 231–233.</ref> while the [[emancipation of the serfs]] granted the rural [[peasantry]] land purchasing rights and freedom of movement,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ford |first=Guy Stanton |url=https://archive.org/details/steinanderarefo01fordgoog |title=Stein and the era of reform in Prussia, 1807–1815 |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=1922 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/steinanderarefo01fordgoog/page/n205 199]–220}}</ref> and a series of [[agrarian reforms]] in northwestern Germany abolished [[feudal obligations]] and divided up feudal land, giving rise to wealthier peasants and paved the way for a more efficient [[rural economy]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Brakensiek |first=Stefan |title=Agrarian Individualism in North-Western Germany, 1770–1870 |date=April 1994 |work=German History |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=137–179}}</ref>

===Enlightenment===
{{Further|Age of Enlightenment|Hymnody of continental Europe#Rationalism}}
[[Image:Oer-Weimarer Musenhof.jpg|thumb|Painting of the ''[[Weimar courtyard of the muses]]'', depicting an elite fellowship of nobles and commoners, courtiers, civil servants, writers, artists and scientists among [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] – in [[Classical Weimar]], by [[Theobald von Oer]], 1860]]

During the mid-18th century, the recognition and application of Enlightenment cultural, intellectual and spiritual ideals and standards, led to a flourishing of art, music, philosophy, science and literature. The philosopher [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] was a pioneering author in a vast number of fields of Enlightenment rationality, and established German as the prevailing language of philosophical reasoning, scholarly instruction and research.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gagliardo |first=John G. |title=Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 |date=1991 |pages=217–234, 375–395}}</ref>

In 1685, Margrave [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]] of Prussia issued the [[Edict of Potsdam]] within a week after French king [[Louis XIV]]'s [[Edict of Fontainebleau]], that decreed the abolishment of the 1598 [[Edict of Nantes|concession]] to free religious practice for [[Huguenots|Protestants]]. Frederick William offered his ''co-religionists, who are oppressed and assailed for the sake of the Holy Gospel and its pure doctrine...a secure and free refuge in all Our Lands''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edict of Potsdam, October 29, 1685 |url=http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/print_document.cfm?document_id=3636 |access-date=26 March 2019 |publisher=Deutsche Geschichte in Quellen und Darstellung}}</ref> Around 20,000 Huguenot refugees arrived in an immediate wave and settled in the cities, 40% in Berlin, the ducal residence alone. The French Lyceum in Berlin was established in 1689 and the French language had by the end of the 17th century replaced Latin to be spoken universally in international diplomacy. The nobility and the educated middle-class of Prussia and the various German states increasingly used the French language in public conversation in combination with universal cultivated manners. Like no other German state, Prussia had access to and the skill set for the application of pan-European Enlightenment ideas to develop more rational political and administrative institutions.<ref>Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg". ''German History'' 20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286.</ref> The princes of Saxony carried out a comprehensive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups, who modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.<ref>Katrin Keller, "Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism". ''German History'' 20.3 (2002): 309–331.</ref>

[[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the [[Sturm und Drang]] movement of proto-Romanticism. [[Weimar Classicism]] ("Weimarer Klassik") was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement, from 1772 until 1805, involved Herder as well as polymath [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] and [[Friedrich Schiller]], a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Literature of Weimar Classicism |date=2005 |editor-last=Richter |editor-first=Simon J.}}</ref>

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[Joseph Haydn]], and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities |date=2011 |editor-last=Owens |editor-first=Samantha |editor-last2=Reul |editor-first2=Barbara M. |editor-last3=Stockigt |editor-first3=Janice B.}}</ref>

[[Königsberg]] philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought – and indeed all of European philosophy – well into the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: A Biography |date=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Immanuel Kant "An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?" |url=http://web.mnstate.edu/gracyk/courses/web%20publishing/KantOnElightenment.htm |access-date=26 March 2019 |publisher=Internet Modern History Sourcebook |archive-date=17 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217062357/http://web.mnstate.edu/gracyk/courses/web%20publishing/KantOnElightenment.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ideas of the Enlightenment and their implementation received general approval and recognition as principal cause for widespread cultural progress.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany |date=1992 |editor-last=Van Dulmen |editor-first=Richard |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Anthony}}</ref>

===French Revolution, 1789–1815===
[[File:Rheinbund 1812, political map.png|thumb|The [[Confederation of the Rhine]], a union of client states of the [[First French Empire]] (1806 to 1813)]]
[[File:Vienna Congress.jpg|thumb|The delegates of the [[Congress of Vienna]]]]

German reaction to the [[French Revolution]] was mixed at first. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. The royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. By 1793, the [[Execution of Louis XVI|execution of the French king]] and the onset of [[Reign of Terror|the Terror]] disillusioned the Bildungsbürgertum (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.<ref>James J. Sheehan, ''German History, 1770–1866'' (1993) pp. 207–288</ref>

Europe was racked by two decades of war revolving around France's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty. War broke out in 1792 as Austria and Prussia invaded France, but were defeated at the [[Battle of Valmy]] (1792). The German lands saw armies marching back and forth, bringing devastation (albeit on a far lower scale than the [[Thirty Years' War]], almost two centuries before), but also bringing new ideas of liberty and civil rights for the people. Prussia and Austria ended their failed wars with France but (with Russia) partitioned Poland among themselves in 1793 and 1795.

====French consulate suzerainty====
[[French Consulate|France]] took control of the [[Rhineland]], imposed French-style reforms, abolished feudalism, established constitutions, promoted freedom of religion, emancipated Jews, opened the bureaucracy to ordinary citizens of talent, and forced the nobility to share power with the rising middle class. Napoleon created the [[Kingdom of Westphalia]] as a model state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Connelly |first=Owen |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonssatelli0000conn |title=Napoleon's satellite kingdoms |publisher=New York, Free Press |date=1966 |chapter=6}}</ref> These reforms proved largely permanent and modernized the western parts of Germany. When the French tried to impose the French language, German opposition grew in intensity. A [[Second Coalition]] of Britain, Russia, and Austria then attacked France but failed. Napoleon established direct or indirect control over most of western Europe, including the German states apart from Prussia and Austria. The old Holy Roman Empire was little more than a farce; Napoleon simply abolished it in 1806 while forming new countries under his control. In Germany Napoleon set up the "[[Confederation of the Rhine]]", comprising most of the German states except Prussia and Austria.<ref name=raff/>

====Imperial French suzerainty====
Under [[Frederick William II of Prussia|Frederick William II]]'s weak rule (1786–1797) Prussia had undergone a serious economic, political and military decline. His successor king [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]] tried to remain neutral during the [[War of the Third Coalition]] and [[First French Empire|French emperor]] [[Napoleon]]'s dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and reorganisation of the German principalities. Induced by the queen and a pro-war party Frederick William joined the [[War of the Fourth Coalition|Fourth Coalition]] in October 1806. Napoleon easily defeated the Prussian army at the [[Battle of Jena]] and occupied Berlin. Prussia lost its recently acquired territories in western Germany, its army was reduced to 42,000 men, no trade with Britain was allowed and Berlin had to pay Paris high reparations and fund the French army of occupation. [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]] changed sides to support Napoleon and joined the [[Confederation of the Rhine]]. Ruler [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Frederick Augustus I]] was rewarded with the title of king and given a part of Poland taken from Prussia, which became known as the [[Duchy of Warsaw]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Neil M. |last=Heyman |date=1966 |title=France Against Prussia: The Jena Campaign of 1806 |journal=Military Affairs |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=186–198 |doi=10.2307/1985399 |jstor=1985399}}</ref>

After [[French invasion of Russia|Napoleon's military fiasco in Russia in 1812]], Prussia allied with Russia in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]]. A series of battles followed and Austria joined the alliance. Napoleon was decisively defeated in the [[Battle of Leipzig]] in late 1813. The German states of the Confederation of the Rhine defected to the Coalition against Napoleon, who rejected any peace terms. Coalition forces invaded France in early 1814, [[Battle of Paris (1814)|Paris fell]] and in April Napoleon surrendered. Prussia as one of the winners at the [[Congress of Vienna]], gained extensive territory.{{Sfn|Sheehan|1989|pp=75, 207–291, 291–323, 324–371, 802–820}}