Editing Reconquista (section)

== Christian military culture ==
===Reconquista as Crusade===
At the [[First Council of the Lateran]], [[Pope Callixtus II]] declared the Reconquista as 
part of Crusades and its participants as Crusaders having an equal spiritual standing with those in the east.<ref>Marin-Guzmán, Roberto (1992). "Crusade in Al-Andalus: The Eleventh Century formation of the Reconquista as an Ideology". Islamic Studies. 31 (3 (Autumn)): 295.</ref>

In the 13th century, [[Pope Innocent III]] declared a crusade and persuaded warriors from many parts of Europe in and outside the Iberian peninsula to assist the Iberians against the [[Almohad|Almohad Caliphate]] army.<ref>The Circle of War in the Middle Ages: Essays on Medieval Military and Naval History.&nbsp;United Kingdom:&nbsp;Boydell Press,&nbsp;1999, pp.29-30</ref> The Almohads then advanced into Europe with the intent of undoing the previous achievements of the Reconquista and marching on Rome itself.<ref>Mann,&nbsp;Horace Kinder.&nbsp;The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages.&nbsp;United Kingdom:&nbsp;K. Paul, Trench, Trübner,&nbsp;1915, pp.177-179</ref> The crusading campaign culminated in a resounding Crusader victory at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]], effectively turning the tide of war in favour of the Christians.<ref>Mann,&nbsp;Horace Kinder.&nbsp;The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages.&nbsp;United Kingdom:&nbsp;K. Paul, Trench, Trübner,&nbsp;1915, pp.177-179</ref><ref>The Circle of War in the Middle Ages: Essays on Medieval Military and Naval History.&nbsp;United Kingdom:&nbsp;Boydell Press,&nbsp;1999, pp.29-30</ref>
 
=== Other Motivations ===
[[File:Orders of knighthood Iberia.svg|thumb|260px|Territories of the [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Spain|military orders of the Iberian kingdoms]] towards the end of 15th century]]
[[Jim Bradbury]] (2004) noted that the Christian belligerents in the ''Reconquista'' were not all equally motivated by religion, and that a distinction should be made between 'secular rulers' on the one hand, and on the other hand Christian military orders which came from elsewhere (including the three main orders of [[Knights Templar]], [[Knights Hospitaller]] and [[Teutonic Knights]]), or were [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Spain|established inside Iberia]] (such as those of [[Order of Santiago|Santiago]], [[Order of Alcántara|Alcántara]] and [[Order of Calatrava|Calatrava]]).{{sfn|Bradbury|2004|p=314}} '[The Knights] were more committed to [[religious war]] than some of their secular counterparts, were opposed to treating with Muslims and carried out raids and even atrocities, such as decapitating Muslim prisoners.'{{sfn|Bradbury|2004|p=314}}

On the other hand, Christian armies sometimes forged temporary alliances with Islamic emirs, and Christian mercenaries were quite willing to fight for Arab and Berber rulers if the price was right.<ref name="Keefe">{{Cite book |last1=Keefe |first1=Eugene K. |date=1976 |title=Area Handbook for Spain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uSWE3EYvBkC&pg=PA105 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |pages=105 |isbn=978-0160015670 |access-date=7 April 2022}}</ref> [[El Cid]] is a well-known example of a Christian mercenary leader who was in [[El Cid#Moorish service|paid military service of the Islamic kings of Zaragoza for years]].<ref name="Keefe"/> Mercenaries were an important factor, as many kings did not have enough soldiers available. [[Norsemen]], [[Flemings|Flemish]] spearmen, Frankish knights, Moorish mounted archers (archers who travelled on horseback), and Berber light cavalry were the main types of mercenaries available and used in the conflict.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

=== Christian cavalry and infantry ===
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2021}}
Medieval Christian armies mainly comprised two types of forces: the cavalry (mostly nobles, but including commoner knights from the 10th century on) and the infantry, or ''peones'' (peasants). Infantry only went to war if needed, which was not frequent. In an atmosphere of constant conflict, warfare and daily life were strongly intertwined during this period. These armies reflected the need for society to be on constant alert during the first chapters of the Reconquista. These forces were capable of moving long distances in short times.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Escudo de Alcanadre-La Rioja.svg|thumb|160px|Coat of arms of [[Alcanadre]]. [[La Rioja (Spain)|La Rioja]], Spain, depicting heads of slain Moors]]
[[Cavalry tactics]] in Hispania involved knights approaching the enemy, throwing [[javelin]]s, then withdrawing to a safe distance before commencing another assault. Once the enemy formation was sufficiently weakened, the knights charged with thrusting [[spear]]s ([[lance]]s did not arrive in Hispania until the 11th century). There were three types of knights (''caballeros''): royal knights, noble knights (''caballeros [[Hidalgo (nobility)|hidalgos]]''), and commoner knights ([[Caballero villano|''caballeros villanos'']], or "mounted soldier from a [[Villa#Post-Roman era|villa]]"). Royal knights were mainly nobles with a close relationship with the king, and thus claimed a direct Gothic inheritance.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Royal knights in the early stages of the Reconquista were equipped with mail [[hauberk]], kite shield, a long [[sword]] (designed to fight from the horse), javelins, spears and an [[francisca|axe]]. Noble knights came from the ranks of the ''infanzones'' or lower nobles, whereas the commoner knights were not noble but were wealthy enough to afford a horse. Uniquely in Europe, these horsemen comprised a militia cavalry force with no feudal links, being under the sole control of the king or the count of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] because of ''[[fueros]]'' (charters) with the crown. Both noble and common knights wore padded armour and carried javelins, spears and round-tasselled shield (influenced by Moorish shields), as well as a sword.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

The ''peones'' were [[peasants]] who went to battle in service of their [[feudal]] lord. Poorly equipped, with bows and arrows, spears and short swords, they were mainly used as auxiliary troops. Their function in battle was to contain the enemy troops until the cavalry arrived and to block the enemy infantry from charging the knights. The [[longbow]], the [[composite bow]], and the [[crossbow]] were the basic types of bows and were especially popular in the infantry.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

=== Equipment ===
In the early Middle Ages in Hispania, armour was typically made of leather, with iron scales. Head protections consisted of a round helmet with nose protector (influenced by the designs used by [[Viking]]s, who attacked during the 8th and 9th centuries) and a chain mail headpiece. Shields were often round or kidney-shaped, except for the kite-shaped designs used by the royal knights. Usually adorned with geometric designs, crosses or tassels, shields were made out of wood and had a leather cover.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Steel swords were the most common weapon. The cavalry used long double-edged swords and the infantry short, single-edged ones. Guards were either semicircular or straight, but always highly ornamented with geometrical patterns. Spears and javelins were up to 1.5 metres long and had an iron tip. The double-axe—made of iron, 30&nbsp;cm long, and possessing an extremely sharp edge—was designed to be equally useful as a thrown weapon or in close combat. Maces and hammers were not common, but some specimens have remained and are thought to have been used by members of the cavalry.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

=== Technological changes ===

This style of warfare remained dominant in the Iberian Peninsula until the late 11th century, when lance tactics entered from France, although the traditional horse javelin-shot techniques continued to be used. In the 12th and 13th centuries, soldiers typically carried a sword, a lance, a javelin, and either bow and arrows or crossbow and darts/bolts. Armor consisted of a coat of mail over a quilted jacket, extending at least to the knees, a helmet or iron cap, and bracers protecting the arms and thighs, either metal or leather.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

[[File:Batalla de las Navas de Tolosa, por Francisco van Halen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] (1212), an important turning point of the Reconquista]]

Shields were round or triangular, made of wood, covered with leather, and protected by an iron band; the shields of knights and nobles would bear the family's coat of arms. Knights rode in both the Muslim style, ''a la jineta'' (i.e. the equivalent of a modern jockey's seat), a short stirrup strap and bended knees allowed for better control and speed, or in the French style, ''a la brida'', a long stirrup strap allowed for more security in the saddle (i.e. the equivalent of the modern cavalry seat, which is more secure) when acting as heavy cavalry. Horses were occasionally fitted with a coat of mail as well.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Around the 14th and 15th centuries heavy cavalry gained a predominant role, including knights wearing full plate armor.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}