Editing Psychosis (section)

=== Culture ===
Cross-cultural studies into schizophrenia have found that individual experiences of psychosis and 'hearing voices' vary across cultures.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Luhrmann TM, Padmavati R, Tharoor H, Osei A | title = Hearing Voices in Different Cultures: A Social Kindling Hypothesis | journal = Topics in Cognitive Science | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 646–663 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26349837 | doi = 10.1111/tops.12158 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520291089.001.0001|title=Our Most Troubling Madness|date=2016-09-27|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/california/9780520291089.001.0001|isbn=978-0-520-29108-9| veditors = Luhrmann TM, Marrow J |access-date=2021-08-26|archive-date=2021-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018155816/https://california.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1525/california/9780520291089.001.0001/upso-9780520291089|url-status=live}}</ref> In countries such as the [[United States]] where there exists a predominantly biomedical understanding of the body, the mind and in turn, mental health, subjects were found to report their hallucinations as having 'violent content' and self-describing as 'crazy'.<ref name=":5" /> This lived experience is at odds with the lived experience of subjects in [[Accra, Ghana]], who describe the voices they hear as having 'spiritual meaning' and are often reported as positive in nature; or subjects in [[Chennai, India]], who describe their hallucinations as kin, family members or close friends, and offering guidance.<ref name=":5" />

These differences are attributed to 'social kindling' or how one's social context shapes how an individual interprets and experiences sensations such as hallucinations. This concept aligns with pre-existing cognitive theory such as reality modelling and is supported by recent research that demonstrates that individuals with psychosis can be taught to attend to their hallucinations differently, which in turn alters the hallucinations themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jenner JA, van de Willige G, Wiersma D | title = Effectiveness of cognitive therapy with coping training for persistent auditory hallucinations: a retrospective study of attenders of a psychiatric out-patient department | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 98 | issue = 5 | pages = 384–389 | date = November 1998 | pmid = 9845177 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1998.tb10103.x | url = https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1998.tb10103.x | access-date = 2021-08-26 | url-status = live | s2cid = 39279836 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210826024511/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1998.tb10103.x | archive-date = 2021-08-26 }}</ref> Such research creates pathways for social or community-based treatment, such as reality monitoring, for individuals with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, providing alternatives to, or supplementing traditional pharmacologic management.

Cross-cultural studies explore the way in which psychosis varies in different cultures, countries and religions. The cultural differences are based on the individual or shared illness narratives surrounding cultural meanings of illness experience.<ref name="Jenkins J 2018">Jenkins J (2018) 'Anthropology and Psychiatry: A contemporary convergence for global mental health', in Bhugra D and Bhui K (eds) Textbook of Cultural Psychiatry, 2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, London.</ref> In countries such as [[India]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Muslim]] majority countries, they each share alternative epistemologies. These are known as knowledge systems that focus on the connections between mind, body, culture, nature, and society.<ref>Scheper-Hughes N and Lock M (1987) 'The mindful body: a prolegomenon to future work in medical anthropology', Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 1(1):6–41</ref> Cultural perceptions of mental disorders such as psychosis or schizophrenia are believed to be caused by [[jinn]] (spirits) in Muslim majority countries.<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last1=Valaitė |first1=Dovilė |last2=Berniūnas |first2=Renatas |date=2024 |title=Majnūn or Mental Disorders: Between Cultural Traditions and Western Psychology in Jordan |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11013-022-09787-0 |journal=Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=136–157 |doi=10.1007/s11013-022-09787-0|pmid=35948861 }}</ref> Furthermore, those in [[Arab]]-Muslim societies perceive those who act differently than the social norm as "crazy" or as abnormal behaviour.<ref name="doi.org" /> This differs from the lived experience of individuals in India and how they attain their perspectives on mental health issues through a variety of spiritual and healing traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raghavan |first1=Raghu |last2=Brown |first2=Brian |last3=Horne |first3=Francesca |last4=Kamal |first4=Sreedevi Ram |last5=Parameswaran |first5=Uma |last6=Raghu |first6=Ardra |last7=Wilson |first7=Amanda |last8=Venkateswaran |first8=Chitra |last9=Svirydzenka |first9=Nadia |last10=Lakhanpaul |first10=Monica |last11=Dasan |first11=Chandra |date=2023 |title=Multiple Mental Health Literacies in a Traditional Temple Site in Kerala: The Intersection Between Beliefs, Spiritual and Healing Regimes |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11013-022-09800-6 |journal=Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=743–765 |doi=10.1007/s11013-022-09800-6|pmid=35771306 |hdl=2086/21950 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In Cambodia, hallucinations are linked with spirit visitation, a term they call "cultural kindling".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinton |first1=Devon E. |last2=Reis |first2=Ria |last3=de Jong |first3=Joop |date=2020 |title=Ghost Encounters Among Traumatized Cambodian Refugees: Severity, Relationship to PTSD, and Phenomenology |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11013-019-09661-6 |journal=Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=333–359 |doi=10.1007/s11013-019-09661-6|pmid=31701326 }}</ref> These examples of differences are attributed to culture and the way it shapes conceptions of mental disorders.<ref name="doi.org" /> These cultural differences can be useful in bridging the gap of cultural understanding and psychiatric signs and symptoms.<ref name="Jenkins J 2018" />