Editing Ottoman Empire (section)

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Culture of the Ottoman Empire sidebar}}
[[File:WaldmeierLebanon.gif|thumb|Depiction of a [[hookah]] shop in [[Lebanon]]]]

The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE |encyclopedia=Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |access-date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117192349/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Slavery]] was part of Ottoman society,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Halil Inalcik |title=Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |archive-date=11 September 2009 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref> with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems of [[Slavery|chattel slavery]], slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, and the children of female slaves were born legally free. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521234122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the [[Ottoman slave trade]] but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.<ref name="Syed-2011"/>

Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.<ref>''[[Halil İnalcık]], [https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_İnalcık_-_Has_Bağçede_Ayş_u_Tarab.pdf "Has-bahçede 'Ayş u Tarab"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726055101/https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k_-_Has_Ba%C4%9F%C3%A7ede_Ay%C5%9F_u_Tarab.pdf |date=26 July 2019 }}, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011)''</ref>

Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, [[Safavid Iran]] and [[Shaybanids|Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids]] of [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023">{{cite book |last1=Comstock-Skipp |first1=Jaimee |editor1-last=Paskaleva |editor1-first=Elena |editor2-last=van den Berg |editor2-first=Gabrielle |title=Memory and Commemoration across Central Asia |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-54099-6 |page=54 |chapter=Turk amongst Tajiks: The Turkic ''Shāhnāma'' Translation Located in Tajikistan and Manuscript Production during the Abuʾl-Khayrid Annexation of Khurasan (1588–1598)}}</ref> Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023"/> But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023"/>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Beyazıt State Library (14667026514).jpg|thumb|The Beyazıt State Library was founded in 1884.]]

In the Ottoman Empire, each [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]] established a schooling system serving its members.<ref name="Strauss-2016">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the Late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. [[Google Books]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 PT194] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 |date=1 November 2022 }}-[https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 PT195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.<ref name="StraussPT195">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. [[Google Books]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 PT195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref>

Several "foreign schools" (''Frerler mektebleri'') operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.<ref name="Strauss-2016"/> Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".<ref>[[Lucy Garnett|Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane]]. ''Turkish Life in Town and Country''. [[G.P. Putnam's Sons]], 1904. p. [https://archive.org/details/turkishlifeinto00garngoog/page/n259 205].</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Ottoman literature}}

The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and [[prose]]. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the [[Iskendername|''İskendernâme'']], was composed by the poet [[Taceddin Ahmedi]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Kastritsis |first=Dimitris J. |title=The sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402-1413 |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15836-8 |series=The Ottoman empire and its heritage |location=Leiden ; Boston |pages=33–37}}</ref> Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European [[Chivalric romance|romance]], short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both [[Turkish folk literature]] and in [[Diwan (poetry)|Divan poetry]].

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude ({{lang|ota|مراعات نظير}} {{transliteration|ota|mura'ât-i nazîr}} / {{lang|ota|تناسب}} {{transliteration|ota|tenâsüb}}) and opposition ({{lang|ota|تضاد}} {{transliteration|ota|tezâd}}) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was [[Lyric poetry|lyric]] in nature: either [[gazel]]s (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of [[Courtly romance|verse romance]] and thus a variety of [[narrative poetry]]; the two most notable examples of this form are the [[Leyli and Majnun (Fuzuli)|Leyli and Majnun]] of [[Fuzuli (poet)|Fuzuli]] and the [[Hüsn ü Aşk]] of [[Şeyh Gâlib]]. The [[Seyahatnâme]] of [[Evliya Çelebi]] (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.

[[File:Nedim (divan edb.şairi).JPG|thumb|[[Nedîm|Ahmet Nedîm Efendi]], one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets|upright]]

Until the 19th century, [[Prose of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman prose]] did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of {{transliteration|ota|sec}} ({{lang|ota|سجع}}, also transliterated as {{transliteration|ota|seci}}), or [[rhymed prose]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murat Belge |title=Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür |publisher=İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |date=2005 |isbn=978-975-8998-03-6 |page=389}}</ref> a type of writing descended from the Arabic [[saj']] that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was [[Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi|Muhayyelât]] (''Fancies'') by [[Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi]], a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was [[Vartan Pasha]]'s 1851 ''The Story of Akabi'' (Turkish: ''Akabi Hikyayesi''). It was written in Turkish but with [[Armenian language|Armenian]] script.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mignon |first=Laurent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |title=Neither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literature |date=2005 |publisher=ISIS |isbn=978-975-428-303-7 |location=Istanbul |page=20 |quote=Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as [[Hovhannes Hisarian|Hisarian]]'s novel. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Masters |first1=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Ágoston |first2=Gábor |date=2009 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |location=New York |page=440 |quote=Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pultar |first=Gönül |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |title=Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism |date=2013 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3342-6 |edition=First |location=[S.l.] |page=329 |quote=In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gürçaglar |first1=Şehnaz |title=Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey |last2=Paker |first2=Saliha |last3=Milton |first3=John |date=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-6847-1 |page=5 |quote=It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist.}}</ref>

Due to historically close ties with France, [[French literature]] constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of [[Romanticism]] can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the [[Realism (arts)|Realist]] and [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalist]] movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] and [[Parnassianism|Parnassian]] movements was paramount.

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously. This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman [[social structure]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Berna |title=Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1 |date=1997 |isbn=978-975-470-054-1 |page=19|publisher=İletişim Yayınları }}</ref>

=== Media ===
{{Main|Media of the Ottoman Empire}}
The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including [[French (language)|French]],<ref name=BaruhMusnik>{{cite web|author=Baruh, Lorans Tanatar|author2=Sara Yontan Musnik|url=https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|title=Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire|publisher=[[French National Library]]|access-date=13 July 2019|archive-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416115120/https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Greek (language)|Greek]],<ref name=StraussConstp32>Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)</ref> and [[German (language)|German]].<ref name="Syed-2011"/> Many of these publications were centered in [[Constantinople]],<ref name=Kendallp339>Kendall, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 339] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 |date=14 January 2023 }}.</ref> but there were also French-language newspapers produced in [[Beirut]], [[Salonika]], and [[Smyrna]].<ref name=StraussLanguagep122>Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule''. Routledge, 7 July 2016. ({{ISBN|978-1-317-11845-9}}), p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151548/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |date=14 January 2023 }}.</ref> Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a [[lingua franca]] and used French-language publications,<ref name=BaruhMusnik/> while some provincial newspapers were published in [[Arabic]].<ref name=StraussConstp25>Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)</ref> The use of French in the media persisted until the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|end of the empire]] in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].<ref name=BaruhMusnik/>

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Ottoman architecture}}
[[File:Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg|thumb|[[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul, designed by [[Mimar Sinan]] in the 16th century and a major example of the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical Ottoman style]]]]
The architecture of the empire developed from earlier [[Anatolian Seljuk architecture|Seljuk Turkish architecture]], with influences from [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.<ref>"Seljuk architecture", ''Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture'', ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.</ref><ref name="Bloom-2009">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Ottoman |quote=Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression. |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name="Freely-2011">{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=35}} "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."</ref> [[Early Ottoman architecture]] experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical Ottoman style]] of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the [[Hagia Sophia]].<ref name="Freely-2011" /><ref name="Goodwin">{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |title=Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86356-172-6 |location=London}}</ref> The most important architect of the Classical period is [[Mimar Sinan]], whose major works include the [[Şehzade Mosque]], [[Süleymaniye Mosque]], and [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]].<ref name="AgostonMasters20102">{{cite book |author1=Gábor Ágoston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |author2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=21 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last1=M. Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan |chapter=Ottoman |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of some [[Ottoman decoration|types of decoration]], most notably in the production of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik tiles]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carswell |first=John |title=Iznik Pottery |publisher=British Museum Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7141-2441-4 |edition=Second |pages=75}}</ref>
[[File:Mihrisah Sultan Complex Eyup DSCF7829.jpg|thumb|[[Sebil]] (water distribution kiosk) of the [[Mihrişah Sultan Complex]] in Istanbul, from the late 18th century, an example of the [[Ottoman Baroque style]]]]
Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was opened to external influences, particularly from [[Baroque architecture]] in Western Europe, which eventually gave rise to the [[Ottoman Baroque architecture|Ottoman Baroque]] style that emerged in the 1740s.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=21–70 (see chapters 1 and 2 generally)}} The [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] is one of the most important examples from this period.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=355}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} During the 19th century, influences from Western Europe became more prominent, brought in by architects such as those from the [[Balyan family]].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} [[Empire style]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] motifs were introduced and a trend towards [[Eclecticism in architecture|eclecticism]] was evident in many types of buildings, such as the [[Dolmabahçe Palace|Dolmabaçe Palace]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605–606}} The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalism]], also known as the [[First national architectural movement|First National Architectural Movement]],<ref name="Bloom-2009a">{{cite book |author1=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |author2=Blair |author3=Sheila S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |pages=379 |chapter=Kemalettin |access-date=9 March 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151707/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Grove_Encyclopedia_of_Islamic_Art_Archit/un4WcfEASZwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=RA1-PA379&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> by architects such as [[Mimar Kemaleddin]] and [[Vedat Tek]].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}}

Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as [[Amasya]] and [[Manisa]]. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a ''[[külliye]]'', that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a [[madrasa]], a [[hammam]], an [[imaret]], a [[Sebil (fountain)|sebil]], a market, a [[caravanserai]], a [[Kuttab|primary school]], or others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a ''[[vakıf]]'' agreement (Arabic ''waqf'').{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}

=== Decorative arts ===
{{further|Ottoman illumination|Ottoman miniature}}

[[File:Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman miniature]] lost its function with the Westernization of Ottoman culture.|upright]]

The tradition of [[Ottoman miniature]]s, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the [[Persian miniature|Persian]] art form, though it also included elements of the [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] tradition of [[Illuminated manuscript|illumination]] and painting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atil |first=Esin |date=1973 |title=Ottoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed II |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=9 |pages=103–120 |jstor=4629273 |issn=0571-1371 |access-date=12 August 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101140443/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |url-status=live }}</ref> A Greek academy of painters, the ''Nakkashane-i-Rum'', was established in the [[Topkapı Palace|Topkapi Palace]] in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the ''Nakkashane-i-Irani'', was added. [[Surname-i Hümayun]] (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.

[[Ottoman illumination]] covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in ''[[muraqqa]]'' or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the [[Ottoman miniature]]. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (''taswir''), calligraphy (''hat''), [[Islamic calligraphy]], bookbinding (''cilt'') and [[paper marbling]] (''ebru''). In the Ottoman Empire, [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminated and illustrated manuscripts]] were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in ''Nakkashane'', the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums ''levha'' consisted of illuminated calligraphy (''hat'') of ''[[tughra]]'', religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

The art of carpet [[weaving]] was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.<ref name="foroqhi">{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=152}}</ref> The weaving of such carpets originated in the [[nomad]]ic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and [[kilim]]s not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.<ref name="foroqhip153">{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=153}}</ref>

=== Music and performing arts ===
{{further|Ottoman Music}}

[[File:Musicians and dancers from ottoman empire.jpg|thumb|Musicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from the [[Surname-i Hümayun]], 1720|upright=.75]]

[[Ottoman music|Ottoman classical music]] was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as [[Selim III]], whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of [[Byzantine music]], [[Music of Armenia|Armenian music]], [[Arabic music]], and [[Persian traditional music|Persian music]]. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called [[Usul (music)|usul]], which are somewhat similar to [[Metre (music)|meter]] in Western music, and [[Melody|melodic]] units called [[Turkish makam|makam]], which bear some resemblance to Western [[Mode (music)|musical modes]].

The [[Musical instrument|instruments]] used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the [[Bağlama|saz]], the [[bağlama]], the [[Kemenche|kemence]]), other Middle Eastern instruments (the [[Oud|ud]], the [[tanbur]], the [[Qanun (instrument)|kanun]], the [[ney]]), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of [[folk music]] were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern ([[Laz people|Laz]]) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: [[Ottoman military band|Janissary music]], [[Romani music|Roma music]], [[Belly dance]], [[Turkish folk music]].

The traditional [[shadow play]] called [[Karagöz and Hacivat]] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2006 |title=Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play |url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |access-date=20 August 2012 |publisher=All About Turkey |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824133707/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Emin Şenyer |title=Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre |url=http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131082003/http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Karagoz.net}}</ref> It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by [[tambourine]] (''def''). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Ottoman cuisine}}
[[File:François-Marie Rosset - Femmes Turcs turques de Serquin, leur manière de faire leur pain - Syrie - 1790.jpg|thumb|upright|Turkish women baking bread, 1790]]

[[Ottoman cuisine]] is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople ([[Istanbul]]), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through [[Ramadan]] events, and through the cooking at the [[Yalı]]s of the [[Pasha]]s, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]], and including [[Greek cuisine|Greek]], [[Balkan cuisine|Balkan]], [[Armenian cuisine|Armenian]], and [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle Eastern]] cuisines.<ref name="Fragner">Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, ''A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East'', London, [[Prague]] and New York, p. 52</ref>

=== Sports ===

[[File:MedyaBJK.jpg|thumb|Members of [[Beşiktaş J.K.]] in 1903]]

The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were [[Wrestling in Turkey|Turkish wrestling]], hunting, [[Turkish archery]], horseback riding, [[Jereed|equestrian javelin throw]], arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of [[association football|football]] matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club]] (1903), [[Galatasaray S.K.|Galatasaray Sports Club]] (1905), [[Fenerbahçe S.K.|Fenerbahçe Sports Club]] (1907), [[MKE Ankaragücü|MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü)]] (1910) in Constantinople<!--Istanbul is the modern name for the whole city-->. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as [[Karşıyaka S.K.|Karşıyaka Sports Club]] (1912), [[Altay S.K.|Altay Sports Club]] (1914) and [[Ülküspor|Turkish Fatherland Football Club]] (later [[Ülküspor]]) (1914) of [[İzmir]].