Editing Johannes Kepler (section)

== Legacy ==
=== Reception of his astronomy ===
[[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as [[Galileo]] and [[René Descartes]] completely ignored Kepler's ''Astronomia nova''. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. [[Ismaël Bullialdus]] accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while [[Seth Ward (bishop)|Seth Ward]] used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.<ref>For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996HisSc..34..451A "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems"], ''History of Science'', 34(1996): 451–504.</ref><ref>Koyré, ''The Astronomical Revolution'', pp.&nbsp;362–364</ref><ref>North, ''History of Astronomy and Cosmology'', pp.&nbsp; 355–360</ref>

Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. [[Pierre Gassendi]] observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Albert |last = van Helden |title = The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631 |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=7 |year=1976 |pages=1–10 |bibcode = 1976JHA.....7....1V |doi=10.1177/002182867600700101 |s2cid = 220916972 }}</ref> This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the [[transit of Venus]] just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris.<ref>{{cite web |author=HM Nautical Almanac Office |url=http://www.nao.rl.ac.uk/nao/transit/V_1631/ |title=1631 Transit of Venus |date=10 June 2004 |access-date=28 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001062918/http://www.nao.rl.ac.uk/nao/transit/V_1631/ |archive-date=1 October 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Jeremiah Horrocks]], who observed the [[Transit of Venus, 1639|1639 Venus transit]], had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.<ref>Allan Chapman, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990QJRAS..31..333C "Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England"], ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society,'' 31 (1990): 333–357.</ref><ref>North, ''History of Astronomy and Cosmology'', pp.&nbsp; 348–349</ref><ref>Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JHA....14..166A "Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's ''Venus in sole visa'': Three Unpublished Letters"], ''[[Journal for the History of Astronomy]]'', 14(1983): 166–179</ref>

''Epitome of Copernican Astronomy'' was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630–1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.<ref name="Gingerich pp 302" /> However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of [[Giovanni Alfonso Borelli]] and [[Robert Hooke]]—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of [[Principle of inertia (physics)|inertia]].<ref>Lawrence Nolan (ed.), ''The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon'', Cambridge University Press, 2016, "Inertia."</ref> This culminated in Isaac Newton's ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|universal gravitation]],<ref>Kuhn, ''The Copernican Revolution'', pp.&nbsp;238, 246–252</ref> a mathematical challenge later known as "solving the [[Kepler problem]]".<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Frautschi |first1=Steven C. |title=The Mechanical Universe: Mechanics and Heat |title-link=The Mechanical Universe |last2=Olenick |first2=Richard P. |last3=Apostol |first3=Tom M. |last4=Goodstein |first4=David L. |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-71590-4 |edition=Advanced |location=Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] |pages=451 |oclc=227002144 |author-link=Steven Frautschi |author-link3=Tom M. Apostol |author-link4=David L. Goodstein}}</ref>

=== History of science ===
[[File:Brahe kepler.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in [[Prague]], Czech Republic]]
Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the [[philosophy of science|philosophy]] and [[historiography of science]]. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as [[Jean-Étienne Montucla]]'s 1758 ''Histoire des mathématiques'' and [[Jean-Baptiste Delambre]]'s 1821 ''Histoire de l'astronomie moderne''. These and other histories written from an [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later [[Romanticism in science|Romantic]]-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success.
[[William Whewell]], in his influential ''History of the Inductive Sciences'' of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his ''Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences'' of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of [[scientific method]]. Similarly, [[Ernst Friedrich Apelt]]—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by [[Catherine the Great]]—identified Kepler as a key to the "[[Scientific revolution|Revolution of the sciences]]".
Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.<ref>Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp.&nbsp;363–367</ref>

[[Alexandre Koyré]]'s work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "[[Scientific Revolution]]" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.<ref>Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp.&nbsp;367–372; Shapin, ''The Scientific Revolution'', pp.&nbsp;1–2</ref>

Philosophers of science—such as [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], [[Norwood Russell Hanson]], [[Stephen Toulmin]], and [[Karl Popper]]—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of [[Commensurability (philosophy of science)|incommensurability]], [[analogical reasoning]], falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist [[Wolfgang Pauli]] even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of [[analytical psychology]] on scientific investigation.<ref>Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas"</ref>

=== Editions and translations ===
Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century).

An edition in eight volumes, '' Kepleri Opera omnia,'' was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday.
Frisch's edition only included Kepler's Latin, with a Latin commentary.

A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by [[Walther von Dyck]] (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.

Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's ''Mysterium Cosmographicum'' in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician [[Alexander von Brill]] (1842–1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the ''Kepler-Kommission'' in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1969), Caspar continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948.<ref>Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's ''Kepler'', pp.&nbsp;3–4</ref> The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and [[Ulrich Grigull]] (during 1984–1999) and [[Roland Bulirsch]] (1998–2014).<ref>[[Ulrich Grigull]], "Sechzig Jahre Kepler-Kommission", in: Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften [Sitzung vom 5. Juli 1996], 1996.</ref><ref>[http://www.kepler-kommission.de/ kepler-kommission.de].
Ulf Hashagen, Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Mathematik, Technik und Wissenschaftsorganisation an der TH München, Stuttgart, 2003.</ref>

=== Cultural influence and eponymy ===
{{Main|List of things named after Johannes Kepler}}
[[File:Kepler-62f with 62e as Morning Star.jpg|thumb|An artist's rendition of [[Kepler-62f]], a potentially habitable [[exoplanet]] discovered using data transmitted by the [[Kepler space telescope]]]]
Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer [[Carl Sagan]] described him as "the first [[astrophysicist]] and the last scientific astrologer".<ref>Quote from [[Carl Sagan]], ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage]]'', episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds".</ref> The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is [[Arthur Koestler]]'s 1959 book, ''[[The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe]]'', in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically, as well as intellectually) of the revolution.<ref>Stephen Toulmin, Review of ''The Sleepwalkers'' in ''The Journal of Philosophy'', Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp.&nbsp;500–503</ref>

A well-received historical novel by [[John Banville]], ''Kepler'' (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.<ref>William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'', Vol. 13 (1982), pp.&nbsp;135–136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's ''Kepler''," ''English Studies'', Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp.&nbsp;424–438</ref> A 2004 nonfiction book, ''Heavenly Intrigue'', suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.<ref>[[Marcelo Gleiser]], "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's ''Heavenly Intrigue'', ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'', Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp.&nbsp;487–489</ref>

In Austria, a silver collector's [[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)#2002 coinage|10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin]] was minted in 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince [[Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg]] personally, and he probably influenced the construction of [[Eggenberg Castle]] (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from ''Mysterium Cosmographicum''.<ref name="Eggenberg Palace coin">{{cite web | url=http://austrian-mint.at/silbermuenzen?l=en&muenzeSubTypeId=108&muenzeId=336 | title=Eggenberg Palace coin | publisher=Austrian Mint | access-date=9 September 2009 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210659/http://www.austrian-mint.at/silbermuenzen?l=en | archive-date=31 May 2011 | df=mdy-all }}</ref>

The German composer [[Paul Hindemith]] wrote an opera about Kepler titled ''[[Die Harmonie der Welt]]'' (1957), and during the prolonged process of its creation he concurrently wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he had developed for the opera.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacDonald |first=Calum |date=2004 |title=Review of Hindemith: Die Harmonie der Welt |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3878689 |journal=Tempo |volume=58 |issue=227 |pages=63–66 |doi=10.1017/S0040298204210063 |jstor=3878689 |issn=0040-2982}}</ref> Hindemith's work inspired [[John Rodgers (geologist)|John Rodgers]] and [[Willie Ruff]] of [[Yale University]] to create a [[synthesizer]] composition based on Kepler's scheme for representing planetary motion with music.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodgers |first1=John |last2=Ruff |first2=Willie |date=1979 |title=Kepler's Harmony of the World: A Realization for the Ear |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27849220 |journal=American Scientist |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=286–292 |jstor=27849220 |bibcode=1979AmSci..67..286R |issn=0003-0996}}</ref> [[Philip Glass]] wrote an opera called ''[[Kepler (opera)|Kepler]]'' (2009) based on Kepler's life, with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pasachoff |first1=Jay M. |last2=Pasachoff |first2=Naomi |date=December 2009 |title=Third physics opera for Philip Glass |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=462 |issue=7274 |pages=724 |doi=10.1038/462724a |bibcode=2009Natur.462..724P |s2cid=4391370 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are: [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]]; [[Kepler's Supernova]] SN 1604, which he observed and described; the [[Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra]] (a set of geometrical constructions), two of which were described by him; and the [[Kepler conjecture]] on [[sphere packing]]. Places and entities [[List of things named after Johannes Kepler|named in his honor]] include multiple city streets and squares, several educational institutions, [[1134 Kepler|an asteroid]], a [[Kepler (lunar crater)|lunar crater]], and a [[Kepler (Martian crater)|Martian crater]].

The [[Kepler space telescope]] has observed 530,506 stars and detected [[List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope|2,778 confirmed planets]] ({{As of|2023|06|16|lc=y}}), many of them named after the telescope and Kepler himself.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exoplanet and Candidate Statistics |url=https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/counts_detail.html |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20181031">{{Cite web |author=Dennis Overbye |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/30/science/nasa-kepler-exoplanet.html |title=Kepler, the Little NASA Spacecraft That Could, No Longer Can |website=[[Nytimes.com]]|date=30 October 2018 |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref>