Editing History of Islam (section)

== Al-Andalus ==
[[File:Adolf Seel Innenhof der Alhambra.jpg|thumb|The interiors of the [[Alhambra]] in [[Granada]], Spain decorated with [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|arabesque]] designs.]]

{{Main|Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Al-Andalus|Taifa}}

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General [[Tarik ibn Ziyad]], first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the [[Visigothic kingdom]] in [[Hispania]]. Crossing the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king [[Roderic]] was defeated and killed on 19 July at the [[Battle of Guadalete]]. Tariq's commander, [[Musa bin Nusair]] crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain [[Ṭārif]] in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the ''[[Chronicle of Alfonso III]]'', refers to an Arab attack incited by [[Erwig]] during the reign of [[Wamba, Visigothic king|Wamba]] (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.<ref name=Collins2004139>{{harvnb|Collins|2004|p=139}}</ref>

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of [[Emir]] by the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Walid I]] in [[Damascus]]. After the [[Abbasids]] came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler [[Abd al-Rahman III]] took over the title of ''[[Caliphate of Córdoba|Caliph of Córdoba]]'' (912–961).<ref name="Hourani 1">{{harvnb|Hourani|2003|p=41}}</ref> Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. [[Al-Hakam II]] succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Glubb|first=John Bagot|title=The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors|url=https://archive.org/details/courseofempirear0000glub|url-access=registration|year=1966|publisher=Prentice-Hall|page=[https://archive.org/details/courseofempirear0000glub/page/128 128]}}</ref> and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Glick|first=Thomas F.|title=Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-14771-3|page=102}}</ref> Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Luscombe|first=David Edward|author2=Jonathan Riley-Smith|title=The new Cambridge medieval history|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41410-4|page=599}}</ref>

The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of [[Hicham II]] who was ousted because of his indolence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=O'Callaghan|first=Joseph F.|title=A History of Medieval Spain|year=1983|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-9264-8|page=133}}</ref> Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called ''[[taifa kings|taifa kingdoms]]'' (Arabic, ''Muluk al-ṭawā'if''; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those [[petty kingdom]]s weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula ''vis-à-vis'' the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the ''taifas'', such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Constable|first=Olivia Remie|title=Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources|year=1997|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-1569-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/medievaliberiare00cons/page/n132 103]|chapter=The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler|url=https://archive.org/details/medievaliberiare00cons|url-access=registration}}</ref>

{{see also|Reconquista|Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula}}

===Emirs of Al-Andalus===
{{Main|Emirate of Córdoba}}

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[[Abd al-Rahman I]] and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the [[Abbasid Revolution]]. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near [[Ceuta]]. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the [[Berber Revolt]] (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the [[Ummah]] torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – [[Obeid Allah ibn Uthman]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Khalid]], both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in [[Zaragoza]]) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at [[Almuñécar]] in al-Andalus, to the east of [[Málaga]].

During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to [[Zaragoza#Moorish Saraqusta|control Zaragoza]]. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the [[Guadalquivir|Guadalquivir river]], just outside Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a [[counterattack]], but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.<ref>This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph.</ref> The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a [[wikt:safe haven|safe haven]] for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.<ref>Michael Hamilton Morgan. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists. National Geographic Books, 2008.</ref>

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph [[al-Mansur]] had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. He died on 29 September 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ns5PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385|year=1839|publisher=C. Knight|pages=385–|volume=15–16}}</ref>

[[File:Lamezquitacordoba.jpg|thumb|The exterior of the Mezquita.]]
Rahman I's successor was his son [[Hisham I]]. Born in Córdoba, he built many [[mosque]]s and completed the [[Mezquita]]. He called for a [[jihad]] that resulted in a campaign against the [[Kingdom of Asturias]] and the [[County of Toulouse]]; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by [[William of Gellone]], first cousin to [[Charlemagne]]. His successor [[Al-Hakam I]] came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in [[Aix-la-Chapelle]] to negotiate for aid. In the meantime Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.<ref>P{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA411|date=21 April 1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29137-8|page=411}}</ref>

[[Abd ar-Rahman II]] succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against [[Alfonso II of Asturias]], whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by [[Vikings]] who had disembarked in [[Cádiz]], conquered [[Seville]] (with the exception of its [[citadel]]) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval [[arsenal]] at [[Seville]] to repel future raids.  He responded to [[William of Septimania]]'s requests of assistance in his struggle against [[Charles the Bald]]'s nominations.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</ref>

[[Muhammad I of Córdoba|Muhammad I]]'s reign was marked by the movements of the [[Muwallad]] (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and [[Mozarab]]s (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son [[Al-Mundhir of Córdoba|Mundhir I]]. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muwallad rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against [[Umar ibn Hafsun]]. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother [[Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi]].

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muwallad. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor [[Abd ar-Rahman III]], son of the killed son of Umawi.<ref>{{cite book|first=Maribel|last=Fierro|title=Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba|location=Oxford|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-1-85168-384-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Ibn Idhari]]|translator=Francisco Fernández y González|title=Al-Bayan al-Mughrib|volume=1|year=1860|orig-date=Composed c. 1312|publisher=Francisco Ventura y Sabatel|location=Granada|language=es|oclc=557028856|ref=Ibn|title-link=Al-Bayan al-Mughrib}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lane-Poole|first=Stanley|author-link=Stanley Lane-Poole|title=The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions|url=https://archive.org/details/mohammedandynas00lanegoog|year=1894|publisher=Archibald Constable and Company|location=Westminster|oclc=1199708|ref=Lan94}}</ref>

====Caliphs of Al-Andalus====
{{Main|Caliphate of Córdoba}}

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====Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia====
{{main|Almoravid dynasty}}
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:::{{Color box|#e5e5e5|border=darkgray}} Ifriqiyah, {{Color box|#ffd880|border=darkgray}} Iberian

====Almohad caliphs====
{{main|Almohad Caliphate}}
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  from:1213 till:1224 color:era text:[[Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II|Yusuf II]]
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  from:1224 till:1227 color:era shift:(0,15) text:[[Abdallah al-Adil|Adil]]
  from:1227 till:1235 color:era shift:(-9,25) text:[[Yahya]]
  from:1227 till:1232 color:era shift:(9,0) text:[[Idris I|Idris]]
  from:1232 till:1242 color:era shift:(0,5) text:[[Abd al-Wahid II|Wahid II]]
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