Editing Pierre Trudeau (section)

=== Foreign affairs ===
In foreign affairs, Trudeau kept Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]), but often pursued an independent path in international relations.

Trudeau was the first world leader to meet [[John Lennon]] and his wife [[Yoko Ono]] on their 1969 "tour for [[world peace]]". Lennon said, after talking with Trudeau for 50 minutes, that Trudeau was "a beautiful person" and that "if all politicians were like Pierre Trudeau, there would be world peace".{{sfn|Canadian Press (1969-12-24)}} The diplomat [[John G. H. Halstead]] who worked as a close adviser to Trudeau for a time described him as a man who never read any of the policy papers submitted by the External Affairs department, instead preferring short briefings on the issues before meeting other leaders and that Trudeau usually tried to "wing" his way through international meetings by being witty.{{sfn|Bothwell|Granatstein|2017|p=109}} Halstead stated that Trudeau viewed foreign policy as "only for dabbing", saying he much preferred domestic affairs.{{sfn|Bothwell|Granatstein|2017|p=108}}

==== NATO ====
In August 1968, the Trudeau government expressed disapproval of the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]], having the Canadian delegation at the United Nations vote for a resolution condemning the invasion, which failed to pass owing to a Soviet veto.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=191}} However, Trudeau made it clear that he did not want an intensified Cold War as a result of the invasion, and worked to avoid a rupture with Moscow.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=191}} In a speech in December 1968, Trudeau asked: "Can we assume Russia wants war because it invaded Czechoslovakia?".{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=18}}

In 1968–1969, Trudeau wanted to pull Canada out of NATO, arguing that the principle of [[mutual assured destruction]] (MAD) caused by a Soviet-American nuclear exchange made it highly unlikely that the Soviet Union would ever invade [[West Germany]], thereby making NATO into an expensive irrelevance in his view.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=17-18}} In March 1969, Trudeau visited Washington to meet President [[Richard Nixon]]. Although the meeting was very civil, Nixon came to intensely dislike Trudeau over time, referring to the Prime Minister in 1971 as "that asshole Trudeau".{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=50-51}} Nixon made it clear to Trudeau that a Canada that remained in NATO would be taken more seriously in Washington than a Canada that left NATO.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=51}} Trudeau himself noted during a speech given before the [[National Press Club]] during the same visit that the United States was by far Canada's largest trading partner, saying: "Living next to you is in some way like sleeping with an elephant; no matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, one is affected by every twitch and grunt".{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=51}}

The NATO question sharply divided the Cabinet. Diplomat [[Marcel Cadieux]] accused Trudeau of "not seeming to believe in the Soviet danger".{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=18}} As a diplomat, the devout Catholic Cadieux had served on the [[International Control Commission]] in 1954–55, where his experiences of witnessing the exodus of two million Vietnamese Catholics from [[North Vietnam]] to [[South Vietnam]] made him into a very firm anti-Communist.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=16}} In late March 1969, Trudeau's cabinet was torn by debate as ministers divided into pro-NATO and anti-NATO camps, and Trudeau's own feelings were with the latter.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=22-25}} Defence Minister [[Léo Cadieux]] threatened to resign in protest if Canada left NATO, leading Trudeau, who wanted to keep a French-Canadian in a high-profile portfolio such as the Department of National Defence, to meet Cadieux on April 2 to discuss a possible compromise.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=25}} Trudeau and Cadieux agreed that Canada would stay in NATO, but drastically cut back its contributions, despite warnings from [[Ross Campbell (diplomat)|Ross Campbell]], the Canadian member of the NATO Council, that the scale of the cuts envisioned would break Canada's treaty commitments.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=25}} Ultimately, the fact the United States would be more favourably disposed to a Canada in NATO and the need to maintain Cabinet unity led Trudeau to decide, despite his own inclinations, to stay in NATO. After much discussion within the cabinet, Trudeau finally declared that Canada would stay within NATO after all on April 3, but he would cut back Canada's forces within Europe by 50%.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=24-25}} The way that Canada cut its NATO contributions by 50% caused tensions with other NATO allies, with the British government of Prime Minister [[Harold Wilson]] publicly protesting the cuts.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=338}}

==== United States ====
[[File:President Richard Nixon and Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Trudeau at the Parliament Building in Ottawa.jpg|thumb|Trudeau in his office in Ottawa with U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] on April 14, 1972]]
[[File:President Jimmy Carter with Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.jpg|right|thumb|Trudeau with U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] in the [[Oval Office]] on September 9, 1977]]
Relations with the United States deteriorated on many points during the [[Presidency of Richard Nixon|Nixon presidency]] (1969–74), including trade disputes, defence agreements, energy, fishing, the environment, cultural imperialism, and foreign policy. On January 4, 1973, Trudeau voted for a resolution in the House of Commons that condemned the American [[Operation Linebacker II|Christmas bombings]] against North Vietnam between December 18 and 29, 1972.{{sfn|Hilliker|Halloran|Donaghy|2017|p=135}} As a consequence, Canadian-American relations, already under stress because of the mutual contempt between Nixon and Trudeau, reached a post-war nadir.{{sfn|Hilliker|Halloran|Donaghy|2017|p=144}} Nixon was infuriated by the resolution and refused to see Marcel Cadieux, now the Canadian ambassador in Washington, in protest for the rest of 1973.{{sfn|Hilliker|Halloran|Donaghy|2017|p=144}} Nixon was only prevented from lashing out more by his desire to have Canada continue as the pro-Western member on the International Control Commission for Vietnam.{{sfn|Hilliker|Halloran|Donaghy|2017|p=144}} Prompted by Halstead, who was known as a proponent of economic "rebalancing" by seeking closer economic ties with the EEC, Trudeau made a visit to Brussels in October 1973 to see [[François-Xavier Ortoli]], the president of the [[European Commission]], to ask for a Canadian-EEC free trade agreement.{{sfn|Hilliker|Halloran|Donaghy|2017|p=214}} Halstead used Nixon's displeasure with Canada as an argument that it was finally time for "economic rebalancing" by seeking closer ties with the EEC, a thesis that Halstead had been advocating ever since the early 1960s. Ortoli refused Trudeau's request for a free trade agreement with the EEC, saying that was out of the question, but did agree to open talks on lowering tariffs between Canada and the EEC.{{sfn|Hilliker|Halloran|Donaghy|2017|p=214}}

Trudeau continued his attempts at increasing Canada's international profile, including joining the [[G7]] group of major economic powers in 1976 at the behest of U.S. President [[Gerald Ford]].{{sfn|Trudeau (1993)|p=?}} American-Canadian relations changed for the better when Trudeau found a better rapport with Ford's successor, [[Jimmy Carter]]. The late 1970s saw a more sympathetic American attitude toward Canadian political and economic needs, the pardoning of draft evaders who had moved to Canada, and the passing of old sore points such as Watergate and the Vietnam War. Canada more than ever welcomed American investments during the "[[stagflation]]" (high inflation and high unemployment at the same time) that hurt both nations in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Lily |last=Gardner Feldman |title=Canada and the United States in the 1970s: Rift and Reconciliation |journal=The World Today |volume=34 |issue=12 |date=1978 |pp=484–492 |jstor=40395029}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom and France====

Trudeau attached little importance to [[Canada–United Kingdom relations]]. While he rebuffed a suggestion by one of his ministers to turn Canada into a republic in 1968, he treated the [[Monarchy of Canada|Canadian monarchy]] with a certain bemused contempt.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=337}} Britain's decision to join the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) in 1973 and Japan's replacement of the UK as Canada's second-largest trading partner confirmed Trudeau's view that Britain was a declining power which had little to offer Canada.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=337-338}} However, Trudeau was attached to the Commonwealth, believing it was an international body that allowed Canada to project influence on the [[Third World]] as it was one of the few bodies that allowed leaders from the First and Third Worlds to meet on a regular basis.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=291}} Although France was no longer as supportive of Quebec separatism as it had been under President [[Charles de Gaulle]] in the 1960s, repeated expressions of the idea of a special Franco-Quebecois bond as opposed to a Franco-Canadian bond by French politicians throughout the 1970s led to tensions between the two nations.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=345}}

In 1970, the Commonwealth was threatened with a split as a number of African members, supported by India, attempted to block planned British arms sales to South Africa, then under the system of [[apartheid]]. The Zambian government submitted a draft of principles which would have bound Commonwealth member states to give no assistance to nations practising racial discrimination.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=281}} The [[Labour government, 1964–1970|first Wilson ministry]] had imposed an arms embargo on South Africa in 1964, which the [[Heath ministry]] ended in 1970 on the grounds that the South African government was pro-Western and anti-communist. A number of African Commonwealth nations led by Zambia and Tanzania threatened to leave the organization if the arms sales went through. When British Prime Minister [[Edward Heath]] visited Ottawa in December 1970, his meetings with Trudeau went poorly. In what was described as a "no holds-barred" style, Trudeau told Heath that the planned arms sales were threatening the Commonwealth's unity.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=281}} 

At a [[1971 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting|Commonwealth summit]] in Singapore in January 1971, Trudeau argued that apartheid was not sustainable in the long run given that Black South Africans vastly outnumbered white South Africans, and any external support for the apartheid government was myopic given that [[majority rule]] was inevitable.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=281}} However, Trudeau worked for a compromise to avoid a split in the Commonwealth, arguing that it needed to do more to pressure South Africa to end apartheid peacefully, and saying that a [[race war]] in South Africa would be the worse possible way to end apartheid.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=281}} The conference ended with a compromise agreement in which Britain would fulfil its existing arms contracts to South Africa but henceforth sell no more weapons to them; ultimately, the British only sold South Africa five attack helicopters.{{sfn|Phythian|2000|p=18}} Singaporean Prime Minister and conference host [[Lee Kuan Yew]] later praised Trudeau for his efforts at the summit to hold the Commonwealth together, despite the passions aroused by the South African issue.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=281}}

==== Germany ====
Trudeau had an especially close friendship with the Social Democratic West German Chancellor [[Helmut Schmidt]], whom he greatly liked both for his left-wing politics and as a practical politician who was more concerned about getting things done rather than with ideological questions.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=253}} Schmidt was sympathetic towards Trudeau's "rebalancing" concept, telling Trudeau that he wanted West Germany to have two North American partners instead of one, and promised at a 1975 meeting to use West German influence within the EEC to grant Canada better trade terms in exchange for Canada spending more on its NATO commitments.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=253-254}} After meeting Schmidt, Trudeau performed a ''volte-face'' on NATO, speaking at a press conference of how much he valued NATO as an alliance that was established for collective security in Europe.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=254}} To show his approval of Schmidt, Trudeau not only agreed to spend more on NATO, but insisted that the Canadian Army buy the German-built [[Leopard 1|Leopard]] tank, which thereby boosted the West German arms industry, over the opposition of the Finance department, which felt that buying the Leopard tanks was wasteful.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=254-255}} Schmidt's support was especially welcome as Wilson, once again back as the British prime minister, proved unwilling to lobby for the EEC lowering tariffs on Canadian goods, merely saying that he was willing "to interpret Canadian policy" to the other EEC leaders.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=268}} By contrast, the West German Foreign Minister [[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]] gave Trudeau a firm promise of West German support for an EEC-Canadian economic agreement.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=168}} The major hold-out was France, which was stoutly opposed to an EEC-Canadian agreement, believing that giving EEC market access to Canadian agriculture as a threat to French agriculture.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=168-169}} In July 1976 a Canadian-EEC Framework Economic Agreement was signed, which came into effect on October 1, 1976.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=158}} Trudeau hoped would be the Framework Agreement would be the first step towards a Canadian-EEC free trade agreement, but the EEC proved to be uninterested in free trade with Canada.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=158}}

==== China ====
Trudeau established Canadian diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China before the United States did in 1979, and became the first Canadian Prime Minister to make an official visit to [[Beijing]]. On February 10, 1969, the government announced its wish to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic, and Trudeau was mortified when the Chinese refused to respond at first, which made him look foolish.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=184}} Unknown to Trudeau, the Chinese diplomatic corps had been so thoroughly purged during the [[Cultural Revolution]] that the Chinese Foreign Ministry barely functioned by early 1969. On February 19, 1969, the Chinese finally responded and agreed to open talks in [[Stockholm]] on establishing diplomatic relations, which began on April 3, 1969.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=184}} Trudeau expected the negotiations to be a mere formality, but relations were not finally established until October 1970.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=184}} The delay was largely because the Chinese insisted that Canada have no relations whatsoever with "the [[Chiang Kai-shek]] gang" as they called the [[Kuomintang]] regime in [[Taiwan]] and agree to support the Chinese position that Taiwan was a part of the People's Republic, a position that caused problems on the Canadian side as it implied Canadian support for China's viewpoint that it had the right to take Taiwan by force into the People's Republic.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=184-185}} On October 10, 1970, a statement was issued by the External Affairs department in Ottawa saying: "The Chinese government reaffirms that Taiwan is an inalienable part of the territory of the People's Republic of China. The Canadian government takes note of the Chinese position".{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=185}} After the statement was issued, China and Canada established diplomatic relations on the same day.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=185}} The so-called "Canadian formula" under which a nation "takes note" of the Chinese viewpoint that Taiwan is part of the People's Republic has been often copied by other nations that have established diplomatic relations with Beijing, most notably the United States in 1979.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=185}} In October 1973, Trudeau visited Beijing to meet [[Chinese Communist Party Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]] and [[Premier of China|premier]] [[Zhou Enlai]], where Trudeau was hailed as "old friend", a term of high approval in China.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|pp=187-188}}

In 1976, Trudeau, succumbing to pressure from the Chinese government, issued an order barring [[Sports in Taiwan|Taiwan]] from participating as China in the [[1976 Montreal Olympics]], although technically it was a matter for the [[IOC]].<ref name="As It Happens" />  His action strained relations with the United States – from [[President Ford]], future President Carter and the press – and subjected Canada to international condemnation and shame.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Trudeau, Taiwan, and the 1976 Montreal Olympics |first1=Donald |last1=Macintosh |first2=Donna |last2=Greenhorn |first3=Michael |last3=Hawes | journal= American Review of Canadian Studies | year=1991 | volume=21 | issue=4 | pages=423–448 | doi=10.1080/02722019109481098}}</ref><ref name="As It Happens">{{cite web | url=http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/taiwan-controversy-at-the-1976-montreal-olympics | title=Montreal Olympics: The Taiwan controversy | publisher=[[CBC Radio One]] | work=[[CBC Archives]]: [[As It Happens]] | date=July 16, 1976 | access-date=January 25, 2018 | archive-date=May 16, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516031346/https://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/taiwan-controversy-at-the-1976-montreal-olympics | url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Cuba ====
Trudeau was known as a friend of [[Fidel Castro]], the leader of Cuba. In January 1976, Trudeau visited Cuba to meet Castro and shouted to a crowd in [[Havana]] "''Viva Cuba! Viva Castro!''" ("Long Live Cuba! Long Live Castro!").{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=274}} In November 1975, [[Cuban intervention in Angola|Cuba had intervened]] in the [[Angolan Civil War]] on the side of the Marxist [[MPLA]] government supported by the Soviet Union which was fighting against the [[UNITA]] and [[National Liberation Front of Angola|FNLA]] guerrilla movements supported by the United States, South Africa and [[Zaire]] (the present-day [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]).{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=274}} Although both Zaire and South Africa had also intervened in Angola, sending in troops to support the FLNA and UNITA respectively, it was the Cuban intervention in Angola that caused controversy in the West. Many people in the West saw the Cuban intervention as aggression and a power play by the Soviet Union to win a sphere of influence in Africa.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=274}} Angola was amply endowed with oil, and many saw the victory of the MPLA/Cuban forces in the first round of the Angolan civil war in 1975–1976 as a major blow to Western interests in Africa. Trudeau's remarks in Havana were widely seen in the West as expressing approval not only of Cuba's Communist government, but also of the Cuban intervention in Angola.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=274}} In fact, Trudeau did press Castro in private to pull his troops out of Angola, only for Castro to insist that Cuba would do so only when South Africa likewise pulled its forces out of not only Angola, but also [[South West Africa]] (modern-day [[Namibia]]).{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=275}} Trudeau's embrace of Castro attracted much criticism in the United States, which allowed Trudeau to appear as a leader who was "standing up" to the United States without seriously damaging American-Canadian relations.{{sfn|Granatstein|Bothwell|1991|p=274}}