Editing Pergamon (section)

==Infrastructure and housing==
Pergamon is a good example of a city that expanded in a planned and controlled manner.

Philetairos transformed Pergamon from an archaic settlement into a fortified city. He or his successor Attalos I built a wall around the whole upper city, including the plateau to the south, the upper agora and some of the housing – further housing must have been found outside these walls. Because of the growth of  the city, the streets were expanded and the city was monumentalised.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 27.</ref>
Under Attalos I some minor changes were made to the city of Philetairos.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 30.</ref>
During the reign of Eumenes II and Attalos II, there was a substantial expansion of the city.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 33.</ref> A new street network was created and a new city wall, with a monumental gatehouse called the Gate of Eumenes, was built south of the Acropolis. The wall, with numerous gates, now surrounded the entire hill, not just the upper city and the flat area to the southwest, all the way to the Selinus river. Numerous public buildings were constructed, as well as a new marketplace south of the acropolis and a new gymnasion in the east. The southeast slope and the whole western slope of the hill were now settled and opened up by streets.

The plan of Pergamon was affected by the extreme steepness of the site. As a result of this, the streets had to turn hairpin corners, so that the hill could be climbed as comfortably and quickly as possible. For the construction of buildings and laying out of the agoras, extensive work on the cliff-face and terracing had to be carried out. A consequence of the city's growth was the construction of new buildings over old ones, since there was not sufficient space.

Separate from this, a new area was laid out in Roman times, consisting of a whole new city west of the Selinus river, with all necessary infrastructure, including baths, theatres, stadiums, and sanctuaries. This Roman new city was able to expand without any city walls constraining it because of the absence of external threats.

===Housing===
Generally, most of the Hellenistic houses at Pergamon were laid out with a small, centrally-located and roughly square courtyard, with rooms on one or two sides of it. The main rooms are often stacked in two levels on the north side of the courtyard. A wide passage or colonnade on the north side of the courtyard often opened onto foyers, which enabled access to other rooms. An exact north–south arrangement of the city blocks was not possible because of the topographical situation and earlier construction. Thus the size and arrangement of the rooms differed from house to house. From the time of Philetairos, at the latest, this kind of courtyard house was common and it was ever more widespread as time went on, but not universal. Some complexes were designed as [[Prostas house]]s, similar to designs seen at [[Priene]]. Others had wide columned halls in front of main rooms to the north. Especially in this latter type there is often a second story accessed by stairways. In the courtyards there were often cisterns, which captured rain water from the sloping roofs above. For the construction under Eumenes II, a city block of 35 x 45 m can be reconstructed, subject to significant variation as a result of the terrain.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. XV 3.</ref>

===Open spaces===
From the beginning of the reign of Philetairos, civic events in Pergamon were concentrated on the Acropolis. Over time the so-called 'Upper agora' was developed at the south end of this. In the reign of Attalos I, a Temple of Zeus was built there.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 93.</ref> To the north of this structure there was a multi-story building, which propbably had a function connected to the marketplace.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 90.</ref> With progressive development of the open space, these buildings were demolished, while the Upper Agora itself took on a more strongly commercial function, while still a special space as a result of the temple of Zeus. In the course of the expansion of the city under Eumenes, the commercial character of the Upper Agora was further developed. The key signs of this development are primarily the halls built under Eumenes II, whose back chambers were probably used for trade.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 263.</ref> In the west, the 'West Chamber' was built which might have served as a market administration building.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 264.</ref> After these renovations, the Upper Agora thus served as a centre for trade and spectacle in the city.<ref>[[Ruth Bielfeldt]], "Wo nur sind die Bürger von Pergamon? Eine Phänomenologie bürgerlicher Unscheinbarkeit im städtischen Raum der Königsresidenz." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 60 (2010) pp. 117–201.</ref>

Because of significant new construction in the immediate vicinity – the renovation of the Sanctuary of Athena and the Pergamon altar and the redesign of the neighbouring area - the design and organisational principle of the Upper Agora underwent a further change.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 266-7.</ref> Its character became much more spectacular and focussed on the two new structures looming over it, especially the altar which was visible on its terrace from below since the usual [[stoa]] surrounding it was omitted from the design.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 267.</ref>

The 80 m long and 55 m wide 'Lower Agora' was built under Eumenes II and was not significantly altered until Late Antiquity.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 87.</ref> As with the Upper Agora, the rectangular form of the agora was adapted to the steep terrain. The construction consisted in total of three levels. Of these the Upper Level and the 'Main Level' opened onto a central courtyard. On the lower level there were rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space.<ref>W. Dörpfeld, "Die Arbeiten zu Pergamon 1901–1902. Die Bauwerke," ''Athenische Mitteilungen'' 1902.</ref> The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 89.</ref>

===Streets and bridges===
The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses.<ref>Wolfgang Radt, ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt (1999) p. 84.</ref> The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5 metres wide, 1 metre long and 30&nbsp;cm deep. The street included a drainage system, which carried the water down the slope. Since it was the most important street of the city, the quality of the material used in its construction was very high.<ref>Wolfgang Radt, ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, pp. 84–85.</ref>

[[File:Pergamon bridge.jpg|thumb|right|Roman bridge of Pergamon]]

Philetairos' design of the city was shaped above all by circumstantial considerations. Only under Eumenes II was this approach discarded and the city plan begins to show signs of an overall plan.<ref>Ulrike Wulf, "Der Stadtplan von Pergamon. Zu Entwicklung und Stadtstruktur von der Neugründung unter Philetairos bis in spätantike Zeit," ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen''. Vol. 44 (1994) p. 142–3.</ref> Contrary to earlier attempts at an orthogonal street system, a fan-shaped design seems to have been adopted for the area around the gymnasium, with streets up to four metres wide, apparently intended to enable effective traffic flow. In contrast to it, Philetairos' system of alleys was created unsystematically, although the topic is still under investigation.<ref>Ulrike Wulf, "Der Stadtplan von Pergamon. Zu Entwicklung und Stadtstruktur von der Neugründung unter Philetairos bis in spätantike Zeit," ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen''. Vol. 44 (1994) pp. 136–137.</ref><ref>Wolfgang Radt, "Pergamon 1998," ''[[Archäologischer Anzeiger]]'' (1999) pp. 309–312.</ref> Where the lay of the land prevented the laying of a street, small alleys were installed as connections instead. In general, therefore, there are large, broad streets (''plateiai'') and small, narrow connecting streets (''stenopoi'').

The nearly 200 metre wide [[Pergamon Bridge]] under the forecourt of the [[Red Basilica]] in the centre of Bergama is the largest bridge substruction from antiquity.<ref>Klaus Grewe, Ünal Özis, et al. "Die antiken Flußüberbauungen von Pergamon und Nysa (Türkei)," ''[[Antike Welt]]''. Vol. 25, No. 4 (1994) pp. 348–352 (pp. 350 & 352).</ref>

===Water supply===
The inhabitants of Pergamon were supplied with water by an effective system. In addition to cisterns, there was a system of nine pipes (seven Hellenistic ceramic pipes and two open Roman channels. The system provided around 30,000–35,000 cubic metres of water per day.

The Madradağ aqueduct was a ceramic pipe with a diameter of 18&nbsp;cm which already brought water to the citadel from a source over 40 kilometres away in the Madradağ mountains at 1174 m above sea level in the Hellenistic period. Their significance for architectural history lies in the form of the last kilometres from the mountains through a {{convert|200|m|ft|adj=mid|-deep}} valley to the Akropolis. The pipe consisted of three channels, which ended 3&nbsp;km north of the citadel, before reaching the valley, and emptied into a pool, which included a double [[sedimentation tank]]. This pool was 35 metres higher than the summit of the citadel. The pipe from the pool to the Acropolis consisted of only a single channel – a lead pipe pressurised to 200 [[Centimetre of water|mH2O]]. The water was able to cross the valley between the pool and the citadel with the help of this pressurised conduit. It functioned as a [[communicating vessels|communicating vessel]], such that the water rose to the height of the citadel on its own as a result of the pressurised pipe.<ref>Boris Ilakovac, "Unbekannte Herstellungsmethode römischer Bleirohre." ''Vorträge der Tagung Wasser im Antiken Hellas in Athen, 4./5. Juni 1981''. Leichtweiss-Institut für Wasserbau, Braunschweig 1981, pp. 275–290 (''Leichtweiss-Institut für Wasserbau der Technischen Universität Braunschweig – Mitteilungen'' 71, {{ISSN|0343-1223}}).</ref>