Editing Jean-Jacques Rousseau (section)

===Criticisms of Rousseau===
[[File:Rousseau in later life.jpg|thumb|upright|A portrait of Rousseau in later life]]

The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow ''[[Philosophe]]s'', above all, Voltaire. According to Jacques Barzun, [[Voltaire]] was annoyed by the [[Discourse on the Arts and Sciences|first discourse]] and outraged by the [[Discourse on Inequality|second]]. Voltaire's reading of the second discourse was that Rousseau would like the reader to "walk on all fours" befitting a savage.{{sfn|Barzun|2001|p=384}}

[[Samuel Johnson]] told his biographer [[James Boswell]], "I think him one of the worst of men; a rascal, who ought to be hunted out of society, as he has been".<ref name="BoswellIngpen1791">{{cite book |first=James |last=Boswell |title=The Life of Samuel Johnson |year=1791 |page=127}}</ref>

[[Jean-Baptiste Blanchard]] was his leading Catholic opponent. Blanchard rejects Rousseau's negative education, in which one must wait until a child has grown to develop reason. The child would find more benefit from learning in his earliest years. He also disagreed with his ideas about female education, declaring that women are a dependent lot. So, removing them from their motherly path is unnatural, as it would lead to the unhappiness of both men and women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02592c.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Jean-Baptiste Blanchard |access-date=26 February 2018 |archive-date=27 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227034252/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02592c.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Historian [[Jacques Barzun]] states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no primitivist; for him:<blockquote>The model man is the independent farmer, free of superiors and self-governing. This was cause enough for the ''philosophes''' hatred of their former friend. Rousseau's unforgivable crime was his rejection of the graces and luxuries of civilized existence. Voltaire had sung "The superfluous, that most necessary thing." For the high bourgeois standard of living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasant's. It was the country versus the city—an exasperating idea for them, as was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseau's was a huge success, whether the subject was politics, theater, education, religion, or a novel about love.<ref>Jacques Barzun, ''From Dawn to Decadence'' (2001) p. 384</ref></blockquote>

As early as 1788, [[Germaine de Staël|Madame de Staël]] published her ''Letters on the works and character of J.-J. Rousseau''.{{sfn|Grimm|1815|p=353}} In 1819, in his famous speech "On Ancient and Modern Liberty", the political philosopher [[Benjamin Constant]], a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his more radical followers (specifically the [[Gabriel Bonnot de Mably|Abbé de Mably]]),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bertholet |first=Auguste |date=2021 |title=Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne |url=https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html |journal=Annales Benjamin Constant |volume=46 |pages=65–76}}</ref> for allegedly believing that "everything should give way to collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social power."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Constant |first1=Benjamin |title=Œuvres politiques |date=1874 |publisher=Charpentiers et Cie, Libraires-éditeurs |location=Paris |page=274 |language=French |quote=Ils crurent que tout devait encore céder devant la volonté collective, et que toutes les restrictions aux droits individuels seraient amplement compensées par la participation au pouvoir social.}}</ref>

[[Frédéric Bastiat]] severely criticized Rousseau in several of his works, most notably in "The Law", in which, after analyzing Rousseau's own passages, he stated that:
<blockquote> And what part do persons play in all this? They are merely the machine that is set in motion. In fact, are they not merely considered to be the raw material of which the machine is made? Thus the same relationship exists between the legislator and the prince as exists between the agricultural expert and the farmer; and the relationship between the prince and his subjects is the same as that between the farmer and his land. How high above mankind, then, has this writer on public affairs been placed?{{sfn|Bastiat|2010|p=35}}</blockquote>

Bastiat believed that Rousseau wished to ignore forms of social order created by the people—viewing them as a [[automaton|thoughtless mass]] to be shaped by philosophers. Bastiat, who is considered by thinkers associated with the [[Austrian School of Economics]] to be one of the precursors of the "spontaneous order",<ref>Norman Barry, The Tradition of Spontaneous Order</ref> presented his own vision of what he considered to be the "Natural Order" in a simple economic chain in which multiple parties might interact without necessarily even knowing each other, cooperating and fulfilling each other's needs in accordance with basic economic laws such as [[supply and demand]]. In such a chain, to produce clothing, multiple parties have to act independently—''e.g.,'' farmers to fertilize and cultivate land to produce fodder for the sheep, people to shear them, transport the wool, turn it into cloth, and another to tailor and sell it. Those persons engage in economic exchange by nature, and don't need to be ordered to, nor do their efforts need to be centrally coordinated. Such chains are present in every branch of human activity, in which individuals produce or exchange goods and services, and together, naturally create a complex social order that does not require external inspiration, central coordination of efforts, or bureaucratic control to benefit society as a whole.

Bastiat also believed that Rousseau contradicted himself when presenting his views concerning human nature; if nature is "sufficiently invincible to regain its empire", why then would it need philosophers to direct it back to a natural state? Another point of criticism Bastiat raised was that living purely in nature would doom mankind to suffer unnecessary hardships.<ref>[[Frédéric Bastiat|F. Bastiat]], ''[[Harmonies of Political Economy]]'', p.&nbsp;65.</ref>

The [[Marquis de Sade]]'s ''[[Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue]]'' (1791) partially parodied and used as inspiration Rousseau's sociological and political concepts in the ''Discourse on Inequality'' and ''The Social Contract''. Concepts such as the state of nature, civilization being the catalyst for corruption and evil, and humans "signing" a contract to mutually give up freedoms for the protection of rights, particularly referenced. The Comte de Gernande in ''Justine'', for instance, after Thérèse asks him how he justifies abusing and torturing women, states: <blockquote>The necessity mutually to render one another happy cannot legitimately exist save between two persons equally furnished with the capacity to do one another hurt and, consequently, between two persons of commensurate strength: such an association can never come into being unless a contract [''un pacte''] is immediately formed between these two persons, which obligates each to employ against each other no kind of force but what will not be injurious to either. . . [W]hat sort of a fool would the stronger have to be to subscribe to such an agreement?<ref>[[Marquis de Sade|Sade, Marquis de]], (1990) [1791], ''[[Justine (de Sade novel)|Justine]], Philosophy in the Bedroom, & Other Writings'', Grove Press, p.&nbsp;645.</ref></blockquote>

[[Edmund Burke]] formed an unfavorable impression of Rousseau when the latter visited England with Hume and later drew a connection between Rousseau's egoistic philosophy and his personal vanity, saying Rousseau "entertained no principle... but vanity. With this vice he was possessed to a degree little short of madness".<ref>{{Citation |first=Edmund |last=Burke |title=A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly |year=1791}}</ref>

[[Thomas Carlyle]] said that Rousseau possessed "the face of what is called a Fanatic . . . his Ideas ''possessed'' him like demons". He continued:<blockquote>The fault and misery of Rousseau was what we easily name by a single word, ''[[Egoism]]'' . . . He had not perfected himself into victory over mere Desire; a mean Hunger, in many sorts, was still the motive principle of him. I am afraid he was a very vain man; hungry for the praises of men. . . . His Books, like himself, are what I call unhealthy; not the good sort of Books. There is a sensuality in Rousseau. Combined with such an intellectual gift as his, it makes pictures of a certain gorgeous attractiveness: but they are not genuinely poetical. Not white sunlight: something ''operatic''; a kind of rose-pink, artificial bedizenment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Carlyle |first=Thomas |title=On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History |year=1841 |chapter=Lecture V. The Hero as Man of Letters. Johnson, Rousseau, Burns. |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1091/1091-h/1091-h.htm#link2H_4_0006}}</ref></blockquote>[[Charles Dudley Warner]] wrote about Rousseau in his essay, ''Equality''; "Rousseau borrowed from Hobbes as well as from Locke in his conception of popular sovereignty; but this was not his only lack of originality. His discourse on [[Urgesellschaft|primitive society]], his unscientific and unhistoric notions about the original condition of man, were those common in the middle of the eighteenth century."<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3118 Equality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121135600/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3118 |date=21 January 2019 }} by Charles Dudley Warner</ref>

In 1919, [[Irving Babbitt]], founder of a movement called the "[[New humanism (literature)|New Humanism]]", wrote a critique of what he called "sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau.{{sfn|Babbitt|1991}} Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by [[Arthur Oncken Lovejoy|A.O. Lovejoy]] in 1923.{{Sfn| Lovejoy | 1948}}{{Page needed |date=June 2015}} In France, conservative theorist [[Charles Maurras]], founder of ''[[Action Française]]'', "had no compunctions in laying the blame for both ''Romantisme et Révolution'' firmly on Rousseau in 1922."<ref>{{Citation |first=R Simon |last=Harvey |quote=and mere concern for the facts has not inhibited others from doing likewise. Irving Babbitt's ''Rousseau & Romanticism'' still remains the only general work on this subject though printed as long ago as 1919, but it is grossly inaccurate, discursive and biased |title=Reappraisals of Rousseau: studies in honor of R. A. Leigh |publisher=Manchester University press |year=1980}}</ref>

During the Cold War, Rousseau was criticized for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses, for example in {{Citation |author=Jacob Leib Talmon |title=The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy |year=1952 |ref=none}}.{{NoteTag | Talmon's thesis is rebutted by {{Citation |first=Ralph A |last=Leigh |contribution=Liberté et autorité dans le Contrat Social |title=Jean-Jacques Rousseau et son oeuvre |location=Paris |year=1963 |language=fr |trans-title=Jean-Jacques Rousseau & his work}}. Another tenacious proponent of the totalitarian thesis was {{Citation |first=Lester C |last=Crocker |title=Rousseau's Social Contract, An interpretive Essay |publisher=Case Western Reserve Press |location=Cleveland |year=1968}}. Two reviews of the debate are: {{Citation |first=J.W. |last=Chapman |title=Rousseau: Totalitarian or Liberal? |publisher=AMS Press |place=New York |year=1968}} and {{Citation |first=Richard |last=Fralin |title=Rousseau and Representation |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=NY |year=1978}}.}} This came to be known among scholars as the "[[totalitarian]] thesis". Political scientist J.S. Maloy states that "the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century had tried to instantiate." But he adds that "The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been discredited as an attribution of real historical influence."<ref>{{Citation |first=J.S. |last=Maloy |title=The Very Order of Things: Rousseau's Tutorial Republicanism |journal=Polity |volume=37 |issue=2 |year=2005 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.polity.2300011 |pages=235–261 |s2cid=144110376}}</ref> Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes that his theories do contain the "seeds of nationalism", insofar as they set forth the "politics of identification", which are rooted in sympathetic emotion. Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many.<ref>{{Citation |first=Arthur |last=Melzer |contribution=Rousseau, Nationalism, and the Politics of Sympathetic Identification |title=Educating the Prince: Essays in Honor of Harvey C. Mansfield |editor1-first=Mark |editor1-last=Kristol |editor2-first=William |editor2-last=Blitz |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2000}}</ref> For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand, Rousseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of "imagined communities" that transcend social and religious divisions within states.<ref>{{Citation |title=Rousseau and Imagined Communities |journal=The Review of Politics |volume=67 |number=3 |date=Summer 2005 |pages=515–537 |doi=10.1017/s0034670500034690 |last1=Engel |first1=Steven T |s2cid=143580289}}</ref>

On similar grounds, one of Rousseau's strongest critics during the second half of the 20th century was political philosopher [[Hannah Arendt]]. Using Rousseau's thought as an example, Arendt identified the notion of [[sovereignty]] with that of the general will. According to her, it was this desire to establish a single, unified will based on the stifling of opinion in favor of public passion that contributed to the excesses of the French Revolution.<ref>{{Citation |first=Hannah |last=Arendt |title=On revolution |year=1990 |page=76}}</ref>