Editing Hittites (section)

==Law==
{{Main|Hittite laws}}

Hittite laws, much like other records of the empire, are recorded on [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] tablets made from baked clay. What is understood to be the Hittite Law Code comes mainly from two clay tablets, each containing 186 articles, and are a [[Codification (law)|collection of practiced laws]] from across the early Hittite Kingdom.<ref name="Taş-2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Taş|first1=İlknur|last2=Dinler|first2=Veysel|date=2015-01-01|title=Hittite Criminal Law in the Light of Modern Paradigms: Searching for the traces of Modernday Criminal Law in the Past|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312373101|journal=Aramazd Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies|volume=9|pages=73–90}}</ref> In addition to the tablets, monuments bearing Hittite cuneiform inscriptions can be found in central Anatolia describing the government and law codes of the empire.<ref name="Sayce-1905">{{Cite journal|jstor=3140922|title=The Hittite Inscriptions|journal=The Biblical World|volume=26|issue=1|pages=30–40|last1=Sayce|first1=A. H.|year=1905|doi=10.1086/473607|s2cid=143295386|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2165026}}</ref> The tablets and monuments date from the Old Hittite Kingdom (1650–1500 BC) to what is known as the New Hittite Kingdom (1500–1180 BC).<ref name="Roth-1995">{{Cite journal|last1=Roth|first1=Martha|title=Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor|url=http://www.g2rp.com/pdfs/LawCollectionsFromMesopotemiaAndAsiaMinor.pdf|journal=Writings from the Ancient World Society of Biblical Literature|volume=6|pages=213–246|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428022130/http://www.g2rp.com/pdfs/LawCollectionsFromMesopotemiaAndAsiaMinor.pdf|archive-date=28 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Between these time periods, different translations can be found that modernize the language<ref name="Hoffner-1981">{{Cite journal|jstor=1359903|title=The Old Hittite Version of Laws 164–166|journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies|volume=33|issue=3/4|pages=206–209|last1=Hoffner|first1=Harry A.|year=1981|doi=10.2307/1359903|s2cid=159932628}}</ref> and create a series of legal reforms in which many crimes<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Roth-1995" /> are given more humane punishments. These changes could possibly be attributed to the rise of new and different kings throughout the history empire or to the new translations that change the language used in the law codes.<ref name="Roth-1995" /> In either case, the law codes of the Hittites provide very specific fines or punishments that are to be issued for specific crimes<ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Coogan-2013">{{Cite book|title=A reader of ancient Near Eastern texts : sources for the study of the Old Testament|last1=Coogan |first1=Michael David|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195324921|location=New York|oclc=796081940}}</ref> and have many similarities to Biblical laws found in the books of Exodus and [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]].<ref name="Coogan-2013" /> In addition to criminal punishments, the law codes also provide instruction on certain situations such as inheritance and death.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

=== Use of laws ===
The law articles used by the Hittites most often outline very specific crimes or offenses, either against the state or against other individuals, and provide a sentence for these offenses. The laws carved in the tablets are an assembly of established social conventions from across the empire. Hittite laws at this time have a prominent lack of equality in punishments in many cases, distinct punishments or compensations for men and women are listed.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Free men most often received more compensation for offenses against them than free women did. Slaves, male or female, had very few rights, and could easily be punished or executed by their masters for crimes.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Most articles describe destruction of property and personal injury, to which the most common sentence was payment for compensation of the lost property. Again, in these cases men oftentimes receive a greater amount of compensation than women.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Other articles describe how marriage of slaves and free individuals should be handled. In any case of separation or estrangement, the free individual, male or female, would keep all but one child that resulted from the marriage.<ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Coogan-2013" />

Cases in which capital punishment is recommended in the articles most often seem to come from pre-reform sentences for severe crimes and prohibited sexual pairings. Many of these cases include public torture and execution as punishment for serious crimes against religion. Most of these sentences would begin to go away in the later stages of the Hittite Empire as major law reforms began to occur.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Roth-1995" />

=== Law reform ===
[[File:SUPPILULIUMA.jpg|thumb|Post-Hittite period statue of king Šuppiluliuma of the [[Luwians|Luwian]] state of [[Pattin]] ([[Hatay Archaeology Museum]])]]

While different translations of laws can be seen throughout the history of the empire,<ref name="Hoffner-1981" /> the Hittite outlook of law was originally founded on religion and were intended to preserve the authority of the state.<ref name="Taş-2015"/> Additionally, punishments had the goal of crime prevention and the protection of individual property rights.<ref name="Taş-2015" /> The goals of crime prevention can be seen in the severity of the punishments issued for certain crimes. Capital punishment and torture are specifically mentioned as punishment for more severe crimes against religion and harsh fines for the loss of private property or life. The tablets also describe the ability of the king to pardon certain crimes, but specifically prohibit an individual being pardoned for murder.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Roth-1995" />

At some point in the 16th or 15th century BC, Hittite law codes move away from torture and capital punishment and to more humanitarian forms of punishments, such as fines.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Roth-1995" /> Where the old law system was based on retaliation and retribution for crimes, the new system saw punishments that were much more mild, favoring monetary compensation over physical or capital punishment.<ref name="Taş-2015"/> Why these drastic reforms happened is not exactly clear, but it is likely that punishing murder with execution was deemed not to benefit any individual or family involved.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Roth-1995" /> These reforms were not just seen in the realm of capital punishment. Where major fines were to be paid, a severe reduction in penalty can be seen. For example, prior to these major reforms, the payment to be made for the theft of an animal was thirty times the animal's value; after the reforms, the penalty was reduced to half the original fine. Simultaneously, attempts to modernize the language and change the verbiage used in the law codes can be seen during this period of reform.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Sayce-1905" /><ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Hoffner-1981" />

===Examples of laws===
[[Image:Sphinx_Gate,_Hattusa_01.jpg|left|thumb|Sphinx Gate entrance of the city of [[Hattusa]]]]

Under both the old and reformed Hittite law codes, three main types of punishment can be seen: Death, torture, or compensation/fines.<ref name="Taş-2015"/> The articles outlined on the cuneiform tablets provide very specific punishments for crimes committed against the Hittite religion or against individuals. In many, but not all cases, articles describing similar laws are grouped together. More than a dozen consecutive articles describe what are known to be permitted and prohibited sexual pairings.<ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Coogan-2013" /> These pairings mostly describe men (sometimes specifically referred to as free men, sometimes just men in general)<ref name="Coogan-2013" /> having relations, be they consensual or not, with animals, step-family, relatives of spouses, or concubines.<ref name="Taş-2015"/> Many of these articles do not provide specific punishments but, prior to the law reforms, crimes against religion were most often punishable by death. These include incestuous marriages and sexual relations with certain animals.<ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Coogan-2013" /> For example, one article states, "If a man has sexual relations with a cow, it is an unpermitted sexual pairing: he will be put to death."<ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Similar relations with horses and mules were not subject to capital punishment, but the offender could not become a priest afterwards.<ref name="Taş-2015"/><ref name="Roth-1995" /> Actions at the expense of other individuals most often see the offender paying some sort of compensation, be it in the form money, animals, or land. These actions could include the destruction of farmlands, death or injury of livestock, or assault of an individual.<ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Several articles also specifically mention acts of the gods. If an animal were to die by certain circumstances, the individual could claim that it died by the hand of a god. Swearing that what they claim was true, it seems that they were exempt from paying compensation to the animal's owner.<ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Injuries inflicted upon animals owned by another individual are almost always compensated with either direct payment, or trading the injured animal with a healthy one owned by the offender.<ref name="Coogan-2013" />

Not all laws prescribed in the tablets deal with criminal punishment. For example, the instructions of how the marriage of slaves and division of their children are given in a group of articles, "The slave woman shall take most of the children, with the male slave taking one child."<ref name="Coogan-2013" /> Similar instructions are given to the marriage of free individuals and slaves. Other actions include how breaking of engagements are to be handled.<ref name="Roth-1995" /><ref name="Coogan-2013" />