Editing History of the United States (section)

== Early republic (1793–1830) ==
{{Main|History of the United States (1789–1815)}}
The [[United States Electoral College]] chose George Washington as the first [[President of the United States|President]] in 1789.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berkin |first=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBqPVWAD51cC |title=A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution |year=2002 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-15-602872-1 |page=192 |language=en}}</ref> The national capital moved from New York to Philadelphia in 1790 and finally to Washington, D.C., in 1800.

The major accomplishment of the [[Washington Administration]] was creating a strong national government that was recognized by all Americans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDonald |first=Forrest |title=The Presidency of George Washington |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofgeo000mcdo |year=1974 |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=9780700601103}}</ref> His government, following the vigorous leadership of Treasury Secretary [[Alexander Hamilton]], assumed the debts of the states, created the [[First Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]], and set up a uniform system of [[tariff]]s and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created the [[Federalist Party]]. To assuage the [[Anti-Federalists]] who feared a too-powerful central government, the Congress adopted the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in 1791, which guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Labunski |first=Richard |title=James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights |year=2008}}</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] formed an opposition Republican Party (usually called the [[Democratic-Republican Party]]). Hamilton and Washington presented the country in 1794 with the [[Jay Treaty]] that reestablished good relations with Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the other, thus setting up the [[First Party System]].<ref name="in JSTOR" /> The treaty passed, but politics became intensely heated.{{Sfn|Miller}} Serious challenges to the new federal government included the [[Northwest Indian War]], the ongoing [[Cherokee–American wars]], and the 1794 [[Whiskey Rebellion]], in which western settlers protested against a federal tax on liquor.{{Sfn|Lesson Plan on Washington}}
Washington refused to serve more than two terms – setting a precedent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=George Washington's Farewell Address |url=http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/farewell |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527211849/http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/farewell |archive-date=May 27, 2008 |access-date=June 7, 2008 |website=Archiving Early America}}</ref> [[John Adams]], a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]], build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the [[Quasi-War]] of 1798.<ref name="in JSTOR">{{Cite journal |last=Smelser |first=Marshall |year=1959 |title=The Jacobin Phrenzy: The Menace of Monarchy, Plutocracy, and Anglophilia, 1789–1798 |journal=The Review of Politics |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=239–258 |doi=10.1017/S003467050002204X |jstor=1405347 |s2cid=144230619}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |title=[[John Adams]] |year=2008 |chapter=10 |author-link=David McCullough}}</ref>

===Increasing demand for slave labor===
{{Main|Slavery in the United States}}
[[File:Crowe-Slaves Waiting for Sale - Richmond, Virginia.jpg|thumb|''Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia'', an 1861 portrait by British painter [[Eyre Crowe (painter)|Eyre Crowe]]]]
During the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, there were dramatic changes in the status of slavery among the states and an increase in the number of [[Free negro|freed blacks]]. Inspired by revolutionary ideals of equality and influenced by their lesser economic reliance on slavery, northern states abolished slavery.

States of the [[Upper South]] made [[manumission]] easier, resulting in an increase in the proportion of [[free blacks]] in the Upper South (as a percentage of the total non-white population) from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. By that date, a total of 13.5 percent of all blacks in the United States were free.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kolchin |first=Peter |title=American Slavery, 1619–1877 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanslavery10000kolc |year=1993 |publisher=Hill and Wang |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanslavery10000kolc/page/79 79]–81 |author-link=Peter Kolchin}}</ref> In 1807, with four million slaves already in the United States, Congress severed U.S. involvement with the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="pbs">{{Cite web |date=January 25, 2007 |title=Interview: James Oliver Horton: Exhibit Reveals History of Slavery in New York City |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/social_issues/jan-june07/divided_01-25.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131223050216/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/social_issues/jan-june07/divided_01-25.html |archive-date=December 23, 2013 |access-date=February 11, 2012 |website=[[PBS Newshour]]}}</ref>

===Second Great Awakening===
{{Main|Second Great Awakening}}
[[File:Camp meeting.jpg|thumb|A drawing of a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] camp meeting, {{Circa|1829}}]]
The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement that affected virtually all of society during the early 19th century and led to rapid church growth. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820 membership rose rapidly among [[Baptists in the United States|Baptist]] and [[Methodist]] congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahlstrom |first=Sydney |url=https://archive.org/details/religioushistory0000ahls_h4c4 |title=A Religious History of the American People |year=1972 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/religioushistory0000ahls_h4c4/page/415 415]–471}}</ref>

It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements, including [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]] and [[Temperance movement|temperance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Timothy L. |url=https://archive.org/details/revivalismandsoc012498mbp |title=Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War |year=1957 |publisher=Harper Torchbooks}}</ref>

===Louisiana and Jeffersonian republicanism===
{{Main|Presidency of Thomas Jefferson|Louisiana Purchase}}
[[File:U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png|thumb|Land acquired in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803 (highlighted in white)]]
Jefferson defeated Adams massively for the presidency in the [[1800 United States presidential election|1800 election]]. Jefferson's major achievement as president was the [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803, which provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River.{{Sfn|Wood, Empire of Liberty |page=368–374}}
Jefferson supported expeditions to explore and map the new domain, most notably the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen E. |title=Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West |url=https://archive.org/details/undauntedcourag000ambr |year=1997 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9780684811079 |author-link=Stephen E. Ambrose}}</ref> Jefferson believed deeply in [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism]] and argued it should be based on the independent [[yeoman]] farmer and planter; he distrusted cities, factories and banks. He also distrusted the federal government and judges, and tried to weaken the judiciary. Although the Constitution specified a [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], its functions were vague until [[John Marshall]], the [[Chief Justice of the United States]] (1801–1835), defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of Congress or states that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jean Edward |title=John Marshall: Definer of a Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/johnmarshalldefi00jean |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/johnmarshalldefi00jean/page/309 309]–326 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9780805055108}}</ref>

===War of 1812===
{{Main|War of 1812}}
{{See also|History of the United States (1789–1815)}}

Americans were increasingly angered by the British violation of American ships' neutral rights to harm France, the [[Impressment|coercion]] of 10,000 American sailors needed by the [[Royal Navy]] to fight Napoleon, and British support for hostile Indians attacking American settlers in the [[American Midwest]] with the goal of creating a pro-British [[Indian barrier state]] to block American expansion westward. They may also have wished to annex all or part of [[British North America]], although this is still heavily debated.{{Sfn|Stagg, Madison's War|page=4}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Manifest Destiny and the Expansion of America |url=https://archive.org/details/turningpointsact00carl_912 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=9781851098330 |editor-last=Carlisle |editor-first=Rodney P. |page=[https://archive.org/details/turningpointsact00carl_912/page/n64 44] |ref={{SfnRef|Carlisle and Golson}} |editor-last2=Golson |editor-first2=J. Geoffrey}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pratt |first=Julius W. |title=Expansionists of 1812 |year=1925 |page=}}</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2024}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Heidler |first1=David |title=The War of 1812 |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne T. |page=4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer |title=The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 |page=236}}</ref> Despite strong opposition from the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]], especially from Federalists who did not want to disrupt trade with Britain, Congress [[United States declaration of war on the United Kingdom|declared war on the United Kingdom]] on June 18, 1812.{{Sfn|Wood, Empire of Liberty|pages=660-672}}

[[File:Battle erie.jpg|thumb|[[Oliver Hazard Perry]]'s message to [[William Henry Harrison]] after the [[Battle of Lake Erie]] began with: "We have met the enemy and they are ours", depicted in a painting by [[William H. Powell]] in 1865<ref>{{Cite web |title="We have met the enemy and they are ours" |work=[[U.S. National Park Service]] |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/met-the-enemy-4.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818083855/https://www.nps.gov/articles/met-the-enemy-4.htm |archive-date=August 18, 2018 |access-date=August 18, 2018}}</ref>]]
Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American militia proved ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home, and efforts to invade Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce, bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled supplies to Britain. The Americans under General [[William Henry Harrison]] finally [[Battle of Lake Erie|gained naval control of Lake Erie]] and defeated the Indians under [[Tecumseh]] in Canada,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smelser |first=Marshall |date=March 1969 |title=Tecumseh, Harrison, and the War of 1812 |url=http://purl.dlib.indiana.edu/iudl/imh/printable/VAA4025-065-1-a02 |journal=Indiana Magazine of History |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=25–44 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325223126/http://fedora.dlib.indiana.edu:8080/iudl-dissem/pdf?fullItemId=%2Fimh%2FVAA4025-065-1-a02 |archive-date=March 25, 2020}}</ref> while [[Andrew Jackson]] ended the Indian threat in the Southeast. The Indian threat to expansion into the Midwest was permanently ended. The British invaded and occupied much of Maine.

In 1814, the British [[Burning of Washington|raided and burned Washington]] but were [[Battle of Baltimore|repelled at Baltimore]], where "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" was written to celebrate the American success. In upstate New York, a major British invasion of New York State was turned back at the [[Battle of Plattsburgh]]. In early 1815, Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a major British invasion at the [[Battle of New Orleans]],{{Sfn|Stagg, War of 1812|page=}}{{page needed|date=December 2024}} and the Americans finally claimed victory on February 18, as news came almost simultaneously of Jackson's victory of New Orleans and the [[Treaty of Ghent|peace treaty]] that left the prewar boundaries in place. This "second war of independence" helped lead to an emerging American identity that cemented [[national pride]] over state pride.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/167504400 |title=A Short history of the United States |year=2008 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |isbn=978-0-06-083144-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=74–75 |oclc=167504400}}</ref> The War of 1812 also dispelled America's negative perception of a [[standing army]] as opposed to ill-equipped and poorly-trained militias.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langguth |first=A.J. |title=Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence |url=https://archive.org/details/union181200ajla |year=2006 |chapter=24: Afterward (1815–1861) |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9780743226189}}</ref>

===Era of Good Feelings===
{{Main|Era of Good Feelings}}
[[File:Election Day 1815 by John Lewis Krimmel.jpg|thumb|Depiction of election-day activities in [[Philadelphia]] by [[John Lewis Krimmel]] in 1815]]
National euphoria after the victory at [[New Orleans]] ruined the prestige of the Federalists and they no longer played a significant role as a political party.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banner |first=James |title=To the Hartford Convention: the Federalists and the Origins of Party Politics in Massachusetts, 1789–1815 |url=https://archive.org/details/tohartfordconven0000bann |year=1969}}</ref> President Madison and most Republicans realized they were foolish to let the [[First Bank of the United States]] close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of the war. With the assistance of foreign bankers, they chartered the [[Second Bank of the United States]] in 1816.{{Sfn|Dangerfield}}{{Sfn|Goodman|pp=56–89}}

The Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the systematic policy of President [[James Monroe]] in his two terms (1817–1825) to downplay partisanship, society entered an [[Era of Good Feelings]] and closed out the [[First Party System]].{{Sfn|Dangerfield}}{{Sfn|Goodman|pp=56–89}}

The [[Monroe Doctrine]], expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in [[U.S. foreign policy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilderhus |first=Mark T. |date=March 2006 |title=The Monroe Doctrine: Meanings and Implications |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=5–16 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00282.x}}</ref>

In 1832, President [[Andrew Jackson]] ran for a second term under the slogan "Jackson and no bank" and did not renew the charter of the Second Bank, dissolving the bank in 1836.<ref name="North Carolina History" /> Jackson was convinced that central banking was used by the elite to take advantage of the average American, and instead implemented publicly owned banks in various states, popularly known as "pet banks".<ref name="North Carolina History">{{Cite web |title=Andrew Jackson |url=http://www.northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/769/entry |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127032954/http://www.northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/769/entry |archive-date=January 27, 2016 |website=North Carolina History Project}}</ref>