Editing Hijab (section)

===Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women===
{{see also|Hijabophobia}}
[[File:No Muslim Ban Protests - DC (32446014332).jpg|thumb|300x300px|Protesters in Washington D.C. hold a sign depicting a woman wrapped in a U.S. flag hijab following Trump's signing of [[Executive Order 13769]] in 2017.]]
Discrimination against Muslims often affects women more due to the hijab making them more visible, leading to [[Employment discrimination|workplace prejudice]], particularly after the rise of [[Islamophobia]] post-9/11.<ref name="Tahmincioglu"/> Hijab-wearing Muslim women face both overt and covert discrimination in job applications and workplace environments, with covert bias often resulting in more hostile treatment.<ref name="Ahmad, A. S. 2010"/> Perceived discrimination can harm well-being,<ref name="Pascoe, E. A. 2009"/> but may also be overcome by religious pride and community; studies show hijab-wearing women often find greater strength and [[Belongingness|belonging]] despite challenges.<ref name="Persevere" />

The issue of discrimination against Muslims affects Muslim women more due to the hijab making them more identifiable compared to Muslim men. Particularly after the [[September 11 attacks]] and the coining of the term [[Islamophobia]], some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace.<ref name="Tahmincioglu"/> Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1037/0735-7028.35.6.635|title = Islam 101: Understanding the Religion and Therapy Implications| journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice| volume=35| issue=6| pages=635–642|year = 2004|last1 = Ali|first1 = Saba Rasheed| last2=Liu| first2=William Ming| last3=Humedian| first3=Majeda| citeseerx=10.1.1.569.7436}}</ref><ref>Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2008). ''[http://cairunmasked.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/2008-Civil-Rights-Report.pdf The status of Muslim civil rights in the United States] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101211061813/http://cairunmasked.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/2008-Civil-Rights-Report.pdf |date=11 December 2010}}.'' [DX Reader version].</ref> Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them.<ref>Ghumman, S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''31''(1), 4-23</ref> As a result of the heightened discrimination, some hijab-wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/csd.2003.0002 |title=Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on College Campuses |journal=Journal of College Student Development |volume=44 |pages=47–66 |year=2003 |last1=Cole |first1=Darnell |last2=Ahmadi |first2=Shafiqa |s2cid=145659665}}</ref>

A number of hijab-wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them.<ref name="Implications">Reeves, T., Mckinney, A., & Azam, L. (2012). Muslim women's workplace experiences: Implications for strategic diversity initiatives. ''Equality, Diversity and Inclusion'', ''32''(1), 49-67.</ref> To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination.<ref name="Implications" />

The discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience; it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. As a result, hijab-wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion, because it might mean they are rejected employment.<ref>Hamdani, D. (March 2005). Triple jeopardy: Muslim women's experience of discrimination. [http://archive.ccmw.com/publications/triple_jeopardy.pdf ''Canadian Council of Muslim Women''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816230634/http://archive.ccmw.com/publications/triple_jeopardy.pdf |date=16 August 2018}}</ref>

A study by Ali et al. (2015)<ref name="job sat">Ali, S., Yamada, T., & Mahmood, A. (2015). Relationships of the practice of Hijab, workplace discrimination, social class, job stress, and job satisfaction among Muslim American women. ''[[Journal of Employment Counseling]]'', ''52''(4), 146-157</ref> found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Younis|first=Mohamed
|publisher=Gallup
|date=2009-03-02|title=Muslim Americans Exemplify Diversity, Potential|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/116260/Muslim-Americans-Exemplify-Diversity-Potential.aspx|access-date=2023-01-02
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221083615/http://www.gallup.com/poll/116260/muslim-americans-exemplify-diversity-potential.aspx |archive-date=21 December 2011
}}</ref>

Hijab-wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment; they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner.<ref name="Ahmad, A. S. 2010"/> While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S., experimenters found that employers who self-identified as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages.<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=Social Sciences Research Network |last1=Acquisti |first1=Alessandro |last2=Fong |first2=Christina M. |date=17 July 2015 |title=An Experiment in Hiring Discrimination Via Online Social Networks |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2031979 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2031979 |location=Rochester, NY |ssrn=2031979 |s2cid=142425660 |journal=Management Science |access-date=4 October 2024}}</ref>

One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court was ''[[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Abercrombie & Fitch Stores|EEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch]]''. The [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job, but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie & Fitch's pre-existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments.<ref>Harrison, A. K. (2016). Hiding under the veil of "dress policy": Muslim women, hijab, and employment discrimination in the United States. ''Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law'', ''17''(3), 831</ref>

Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S.<ref name="JIWS70-97">Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Judging by appearances: Perceived discrimination among South Asian Muslim women in the US and the UAE. ''Journal of International Women's Studies,16''(2), 70-97</ref> Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions.<ref name="JIWS70-97" /> The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims.<ref name="JIWS70-97" />

Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically.<ref name="Pascoe, E. A. 2009"/> However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual.<ref name="Persevere">{{cite thesis |last=Jasperse |first=Marieke Lyniska |year=2009 |title=Persevere in Adversity: Perceived Religious Discrimination and Islamic Identity as Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing in Muslim Women in New Zealand |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/41336356.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Core.ac.uk |location=New Zealand |publisher=Victoria University of Wellington |doi=10.26686/wgtn.16967146.v1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924214843/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/41336356.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=28 September 2018 |hdl=10063/1005|type=thesis}}</ref> A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality.<ref name="Persevere" />