Editing Eleanor of Aquitaine (section)

== Widow and queen mother (1189–1204) ==

=== Richard I (1189–1199) ===
==== Release from prison and regency (1189) ====
[[File:Fontevraud3.jpg|Fontevraud Abbey|thumb|alt=aerial view of Fontevraud Abbey]]
Upon the death of Henry II on 6 July 1189, [[Richard I]] was the undisputed heir. One of his first acts as king was to send [[William Marshal]] to England with orders to release the sixty-five-year-old Eleanor from prison; he found upon his arrival that her custodians had already released her, whereupon she assumed the powers of regent, bestowed upon her by Richard{{efn|''Statuendi quae vellet in regno''{{sfn|Wilkinson|1944}}}} who was still in France.{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 9}} Eleanor then rode to Westminster and received the oaths of fealty from the lords and prelates on behalf of the new king. She ruled England in Richard's name, now signing herself "Eleanor, by the grace of God,{{efn|"By Grace of God" was a title first used by Henry II in 1172{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} }} Queen of England", and reversed many of Henry II's acts.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=248–250}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

==== Third Crusade and journey to Italy (1189–1191) ====

On 13 August 1189, Richard sailed from Barfleur to [[Portsmouth]] and was received with enthusiasm, proceeding from there to Winchester to meet Eleanor.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=250}} At this time, Eleanor's two surviving sons were unmarried, raising questions about succession. However, on 29 August, Prince John married his cousin Isabella, to whom he had been betrothed in 1176.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=252}} On 3 September Richard was crowned at Westminster Abbey, with Eleanor and John in attendance.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=252–253}} Richard was preoccupied with a long planned participation in the [[Third Crusade]], and on his first absence from the kingdom in November on a pilgrimage, appointed Eleanor regent. On his return he made more formal arrangements, prior to his more prolonged departure for the crusade on 12 December, appointing as custodians his justiciar [[Hugh de Puiset]] together with [[William de Longchamp]] as ''summi justifiarii''.{{efn|''In regimine regni''{{sfn|Wilkinson|1944}}}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|1944}} Although Eleanor had no formal appointment in England during this time, they deferred to her authority.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=254–255}} On 2 February 1190, Eleanor joined Richard at the Chateau of [[Bures-en-Bray|Bures]], Normandy, and a family conclave was held at [[Nonancourt]] with John in attendance at which arrangements for the administration of England in the King's absence were finalised.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=256}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|1944}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

Meanwhile, although John had married, the question of succession still remained, and in particular the problem of Alys to whom Richard was betrothed yet had been in a relationship with his father, but was also King Philip's half-sister. It was during the spring of 1190 that negotiations began with the [[Navarre]]se [[House of Jiménez]] regarding [[Berengaria of Navarre|Berengaria]], daughter of [[Sancho VI of Navarre]], though such an alliance would require the approval of Philip in breaking Richard's betrothal. Such an alliance would serve the purpose of stabilising matters in Gascony.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=257–258}} However, Richard and Philip finally departed on their crusade on 4 July 1190.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=258–259}} Once Richard had set off, Eleanor sent John to England while she travelled to Navarre, meeting Berengaria and her father at [[Pamplona]]. From there, she escorted Berengaria to Sicily, where Richard had arrived at [[Messina]].{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=260–261}} In Messina, Richard found that his sister Joanna, widowed since November 1189, was being held prisoner. He was also in conflict with Philip, partly over the matter of Alys,{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=261–262}} as a result of which Eleanor's ship was refused landing at Messina and had to proceed to [[Brindisi]]. By March 1191, Richard had secured Joanna's release, and joined Eleanor and Berengaria at [[Reggio Calabria|Reggio]], from where the latter was placed in Joanna's care. Richard then confronted Philip with the matter of Alys' relationship with Henry II as the reason for breaking the betrothal, and Philip promptly departed for the Holy Land prior to the arrival of Eleanor in Messina.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=263–265}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

By the time Eleanor had reached Sicily, stories of misrule and conflict in England between Longchamp and John had emerged. [[Walter de Coutances]], Archbishop of Rouen, was appointed to reestablish royal authority in England, and he and Eleanor began their return journey after only four days, departing on 2 April 1191 for [[Salerno]]. From there they travelled to Rome, arriving on the 14th to meet with the new Pope, [[Celestine III]], to obtain his approval of appointing Walter de Coutances over William de Longchamp, who also served as a papal legate.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=265–266}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

On 10 April 1191, Richard, Berengaria and Joanna left Sicily, with the women on a separate ship, bound for [[Crusader states|Outremer]], but storms diverted them to Cyprus where Richard and Berengaria were married on 12 May at [[Limasol]], and Berengaria was crowned.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=266–267}} They then sailed to the Holy Land on 5 June, arriving at [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] on the 8th, which Richard captured. Philip abandoned the Crusade on 2 July and returned to France, but in the meantime Richard had found himself in conflict with [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], an event which would have serious consequences for him later.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=267–268}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

==== Normandy and the struggle for power (1191–1192) ====

Once Eleanor reached Rouen, where she arrived on 24 June 1191, she was able to direct affairs in England better,{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=268}} although she spent the winter of 1191–1192 in France.{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} Eleanor's new role softened the criticisms she had accumulated. As regent, she demonstrated the qualities of a benevolent and statesmanlike ruler, with Richard of Devizes describing her as "incomparable"{{efn|''Regina Alienor, femina incomparibilis''{{sfn|Devizes|1838|p=25}}}} and she began using the phrase ''teste me ipsa'' (as my own witness) on official documents.{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} In England, while Coutance tried to restore order, Longchamp was eventually deposed and Prince John began to consolidate power, claiming he was the heir presumptive. Coutance was appointed head of a regency council and Longchamp fled to France, attempting unsuccessfully to recruit Eleanor to his cause.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=268–271}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} Her position became more complicated with the return of King Philip from the Holy Land in late 1191, who not only attempted to undermine Richard's reputation but demanded the return of Alys, still in Eleanor's care. In early 1192 Philip recruited John to his cause, offering him lands and Alys, prompting Eleanor's return to England on 11 February to prevent John's invasion of Normandy,{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=273–274}} but she spent much of that year dealing with ecclesiastical disputes and successfully curbing the ambitions of Longchamp and John.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=274–276}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

==== Raising a ransom and restoration of Richard I (1192–1194) ====

In the Holy Land, Richard made little progress in his quest to capture Jerusalem, and by late 1192 was forced to arrange a truce with [[Saladin]], and sent Joanna and Berengaria back to Sicily in September, departing from Acre himself on 9 October. His whereabouts were unknown till January 1193 when Eleanor learned that he had been taken prisoner by Duke Leopold, whom he had slighted on his arrival in Acre.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=276–278}} Richard had travelled north from [[Trieste]] through Hungary, but when he crossed into Austria he was recognised, apprehended and taken to [[Dürnstein Castle]]. Leopold informed [[Emperor Henry VI]], who wrote to Philip II of France. Philip supported this turn of events. Eleanor only became aware of what had happened through Coutances' spies in France, but immediately assumed control of the government. Prince John, with Philip's support, became emboldened once more in claiming the throne.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=279–281}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} Leopold handed over his prisoner to the Emperor in February, and he was moved to the castle of [[Trifels Castle|Trifels]], while Eleanor unsuccessfully sought the intervention of the Pope.{{efn|Eleanor's three letters to the Pope{{sfn|Stapleton|2012}} have been cited at length, including her description of being wasted away by grief ''(consumptis carnibus''){{efn|''Aleonora, Angliae Regina, Papae opem miserabiliter implorat pro liberatione Regis Anglorum Richardi filii sui'' AD 1193 A.4. R.1. ff.{{sfn|Rymer|1707|pp=I. 23–25}}}}{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=283–287}}{{sfn|Aquitaine|1193}}}}{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=282–287}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} Eventually a truce was concluded with John in April,{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=289}} but Eleanor also received a demand from the Emperor for 100,000 silver marks{{efn|The [[ransom]] was roughly equivalent to twice the annual revenue of the whole of England. Turner gives a higher figure of 150,000,{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} which was negotiated later in June{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=294}}}} and the provision of hostages for Richard's release. At the same time she received the first letter from him since his capture, urging her to accept the terms, and informing her that his conditions had much improved and that he had been transferred to [[Hagenau]].{{efn|There is no evidence to support the popular legend that Richard's location was "discovered" by a troubadour named [[Blondel de Nesle|Blondel]]{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=281}}}}{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=291–292}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

Eleanor and her council immediately set about trying to raise the ransom and arrange the hostages, a task to which Beregnaria, now in Poitou. contributed, largely through taxation of all of Richard's territories and subjects.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=292–294}} The first installment of 100,000 marks was delivered in October and the balance was raised by December. Having agreed to a date for Richard's release on 17 January 1194, Eleanor and Coutances set off for Germany in December 1193, arriving at [[Speyer]] by the agreed day. There she discovered that Philip and John had outbid her in return for keeping Richard in custody. Further negotiations and offers, including an annual tribute, led to him being released on 4 February.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=295–296}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} They immediately began their return, via [[Cologne]], eventually arriving in [[Antwerp]] where they boarded the ''Trenchemer'' in the [[Scheldt]], to avoid the French, landing in [[Sandwich, Kent|Sandwich]] on 12 March. Richard and Eleanor then made a triumphal entry into London on 23 March 1194.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=297–299}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

==== Return to France and retirement (1194–1199) ====

Eleanor and Richard's stay in England was relatively brief, since feeling the need to defend his French possessions from Philip, Richard departed from [[Portsmouth]] on 12 May 1194. Arriving in Barflueur, neither Richard nor Eleanor would return to England.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=299}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} There, they effected a reconciliation with John that would last through the rest of Richard's reign, leaving the latter free to defend his territory against Philip, while Eleanor, now seventy-two, retired to Fontevrault and there is very little information available about her for the next few years, though she made the abbey her principal residence for the rest of her life.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=300–301}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}} The marriage of her daughter Joanna to [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] in October 1196 finally ended Eleanor's dynastic claims on Toulouse, which now passed to her daughter.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=305}} Richard was in a state of almost perpetual war with the French king following his return to Normandy in 1194, and finally succumbed to a wound on 6 April 1199 at the age of forty-one, with Eleanor at his side.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=310–311}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 10}}

Initially, prior to arriving in England, Richard delegated authority to Eleanor ''statuendi quae vellet in regno'', though this was not repeated. During Richard's subsequent prolonged absences, royal authority in England was represented by a succession of [[chief justiciars]]. On Longchamp's dismissal in 1191, government moved to a more conciliar mode (''magnum concilium'' and ''communitas regni'') under Coutance.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1944}}

=== King John (1199–1204) ===

Richard and Berengaria had no children, and on Richard's death, one of the first things Eleanor did was to warn John to flee from Brittany, where he was with his nephew [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany]], and secure Richard's possessions. Arthur was the only son of Eleanor's fourth son Geoffrey and his wife Constance. He had been considered to be Richard's heir, being the son of John's older brother, and hence had a claim on the throne, there being no other male heirs. Richard himself had declared John to be his successor.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=311}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}} King Philip was quick to exploit the possibility of an Angevin succession war, proclaiming the twelve-year-old Arthur as the new king, who in turn swore allegiance to Philip for his French possessions. Whereupon the Breton army advanced on Angers and captured it, followed by Anjou, Maine and Touraine declaring their allegiance to Arthur. Eleanor immediately acted to repel the Bretons, ordering the devastation of the lands of any vassal disloyal to John. Support for Arthur soon collapsed and he withdrew with Philip to Paris and John was officially invested as Duke of Normandy on 25 April 1199, while Eleanor toured all her domains raising support for John, whom she had declared the rightful heir and on 25 May 1199, John arrived in England and was crowned king on 27 May, although he was back in Normandy by 20 June where he concluded a truce.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=315–318}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}

Eleanor also made peace with Philip and pledged her allegiance as a vassal.{{efn|It was a most unusual step at that time or a woman to pledge allegiance for her lands{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}} }}{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=320}} She had come to an arrangement with John, whereby she would officially declare him her heir and cede her French possessions to him, while retaining her right to them during her lifetime, as his ''domina''. This helped to safeguard them from Philip in the event of her death.{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=320}} John and Isabella had no children, and he needed an heir to secure succession and in 1199, he had his marriage annulled. In September that year Joanna died in childbirth, at Fontevrault, where she was buried, leaving Eleanor with only two surviving children.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=321–322}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}} Despite their truce, conflict between John, Arthur and Philip continued intermittently, till a further arrangement was put in place at Le Mans sometime after Christmas 1199. Among other provisions, the new truce cemented dynastic alliances through the marriage of the twelve-year-old [[Louis VIII of France|Louis]], King Philip's heir, to one of John's Castilian nieces and the payment of 30,000 marks by John to Philip. This was formalised in the [[Treaty of Le Goulet]] of May 1200. Subsequently, John returned to England to raise the money, while Eleanor travelled to Castile to select a suitable bride.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=322–323}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}} On the way she was kidnapped, just south of Poitiers, by [[Hugh IX of Lusignan]], one of her vassals. Hugh demanded she cede him the [[county of La Marche]], which one of his ancestors had previously sold to Henry II, which she acceded to so that she could complete her mission. She arrived in Castile by the end of January 1200.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}

Eleanor of Castile had two unmarried daughters, and of those Eleanor chose the younger, [[Blanche of Castile|Blanche]]. She remained there till late March, to avoid Lent, during which marriages could not be solemnised, arriving in Bordeaux at Easter on 9 April.{{sfn|Hoveden|1853|loc=cited in {{harvnb|Weir|2012|p=324, note 49}}}} Travelling on to the Loire, she entrusted Blanche to the Archbishop of Bordeaux, who escorted her to meet King John, while Eleanor once more returned to Fontevrault. While there she undertook a major reconstruction of her [[Palace of Poitiers|ducal palace]] in Poitiers, originally [[Merovingian art and architecture|Merovingian]] but now being rebuilt in the [[Angevin Style]].{{efn|This included building the hall, that formed part of the Palais de Justice until 2019{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}}}{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=324–325}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}

Blanche and Louis were married on 23 May 1200. She bore him 12 children, one of whom was the future [[Louis IX of France]], ensuring that Eleanor's descendants would be future rulers of France.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=326}} John visited Eleanor at Fontevault in the early summer, hearing she was unwell. Amongst the advice she gave him was to secure the loyalty of her vassals, should she die, and in particular Hugh of Lusignan. John arrived at Lusignan Castle on 5 July, where he encountered the thirteen-year-old [[Isabelle of Angouleme]] and sought her hand in marriage from her parents, while breaking off negotiations with the Portuguese court. However, Isabelle was already betrothed to Hugh, whom he had dispatched to England. While there were potential political advantages to such an alliance, under the circumstances this was a mistake that would soon have serious consequences.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=326–327}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}

The marriage between John and Isabelle took place in secret in Bordeaux on 24 August. They then proceeded to England, where she was crowned queen at Westminster Abbey on 8 October 1200. King John ignored the Lusignans' protests over the betrayal, whereupon they rose in rebellion in early 1201. Eleanor, though in ill health, once more intervened to restore peace in February and March, summoning her grandson Arthur as an intermediary with King Philip. But John continued to seek vengeance on the Lusignans, and conflict simmered throughout 1201.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=328–331}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}

On 28 April 1202, freed from some of his other commitments, Philip summoned John to his court, and upon his refusal declared him a traitor and in lieu of his lands. John's position became more perilous when Philip betrothed his daughter Marie to the fifteen-year-old Arthur in July, and declared him to be the rightful lord of the Angevin possessions. Under Philip's orders, Arthur proceeded to Poitou to seize his new inheritance.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=332–333}} This prompted Eleanor to set out for Poitiers from Fontevrault, but on the way found herself besieged by Arthur and Hugh in [[Mirebeau]] Castle, near the Angevin border. She refused demands to yield up control of the fortress and urgently summoned John to aid her.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=332–333}} John received the news on 30 July and reached Mirebeau on 1 August where he found that the defences were already breached, but was able to lift the siege, release Eleanor and take both Arthur and the Lusignans into his custody. Arthur was last seen entering [[Falaise Castle]] in Normandy as a prisoner on 10 August. Eleanor had demanded a promise of clemency for Arthur, but little was heard of him for some time, despite an attempt to free him in the autumn of 1202. On her return to Fontevrault, Eleanor took the veil as a nun.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=333–335}}{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}}

By the end of 1202, rumours were circulating about Arthur's death,{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=336}} but John had the youth brought before him in January 1203 at Falaise, asking him to switch his allegiance from Philip. Instead, Arthur demanded that John grant to him all his possessions, according to Philip's declaration. Arthur's threats were sufficient for some of the King's advisers to suggest he be eliminated, as a danger to the security of the realm. Rumours of his assassination persisted and subsequent events have been the matter of speculation, other than that he was transferred to Rouen on 8 March, and in April his gaoler announced he was relinquishing his role, which is the last record of his existence.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=336–338}} John was commonly blamed for Arthur's disappearance, and found himself increasingly isolated over the spring of 1203, providing an opportunity for Philip, who progressively annexed Normandy throughout the rest of the year, John leaving for England to muster support on 6 December.{{sfn|Weir|2012|pp=339–342}} The French and Breton conquest of Normandy continued in early 1204, with most of the significant strongholds captured by the end of March.{{sfn|Turner|2009|loc=cap 11}} It is unclear if Eleanor was aware of the progressive destruction of the empire she and Henry II had ruled, and which she had fought to preserve for her sons. One source from Fontevrault suggests that she had become unaware of her surroundings during the last few months although this is either contradicted or not mentioned by other contemporary accounts.{{sfn|Weir|2012|p=342}}