Editing Educational psychology (section)

===Motivation===
[[Motivation]] is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter:<ref>{{cite web|last=Omrod|first=Jeanne|title=Educational Theme: Motivation in the Classroom|url=http://www.greeneeducationfoundation.org/documents/GEF_2012-2013_Educational_Theme.pdf|publisher=Green Education Foundation|access-date=2013-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215141923/http://www.greeneeducationfoundation.org/documents/GEF_2012-2013_Educational_Theme.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Provide direction towards goals.
* Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance.
* Direct behavior toward specific goals.
* Lead to increased effort and energy.
* Increase initiation of and persistence in activities.

Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the [[volition (psychology)|volition]] or [[will (philosophy)|will]] that students bring to a task, their level of interest and [[intrinsic motivation]], the personally held [[goal setting|goals]] that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments. A form of [[attribution theory]] developed by [[Bernard Weiner]]<ref name=weiner>[[Bernard Weiner|Weiner, B.]] (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. ''Educational Psychology Review'', 12, 1–14.</ref> describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of [[shame]] and [[embarrassment]] and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of [[guilt (emotion)|guilt]] and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.<ref name="weiner"/>

The [[self-determination theory]] (SDT) was developed by psychologists [[Edward L. Deci|Edward Deci]] and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic and extrinsic motivation]] in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Deci|first=Edward L.|title=Motivation and Education: The Self-Determination Perspective|journal=Educational Psychologist|year=1991|volume=26|issue=3 & 4|pages=325–346|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6}}</ref>

Motivational theories also explain how [[goal theory|learners' goals]] affect the way they engage with academic tasks.<ref name=elliot>Elliot, A.J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. ''Educational Psychologist'', 34, 169–89.</ref> Those who have ''mastery goals'' strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have ''performance approach goals'' strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have ''performance avoidance'' goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, [[creativity]], and [[intrinsic motivation]]. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor [[attention|concentration]] while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing, and [[Anxiety (mood)#Test and performance|test anxiety]]. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.<ref name="elliot"/>

[[Locus of control]] is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the 1970s and '80s, [[Cassandra B. Whyte]] did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of [[Julian B. Rotter]] in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance.<ref name="Whyte80">Whyte, C. (1980). An Integrated Counseling and Learning Assistance Center. New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass, Inc. San Francisco.</ref> Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard.<ref>Whyte, C. (1978). Effective Counseling Methods for High-Risk College Freshmen. ''Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance'', 6 (4), 198–200.</ref>