Editing Botulism (section)

== Other susceptible species ==
Botulism can occur in many [[vertebrate]]s and [[invertebrate]]s. Botulism has been reported in species such as rats, mice, chicken, frogs, toads, goldfish, [[aplysia]], squid, crayfish, [[drosophila]] and leeches.<ref name="pmid10865130">{{cite journal | vauthors = Humeau Y, Doussau F, Grant NJ, Poulain B | title = How botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins block neurotransmitter release | journal = Biochimie | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 427–46 | date = May 2000 | pmid = 10865130 | doi = 10.1016/S0300-9084(00)00216-9 }}</ref>

Death from botulism is common in waterfowl; an estimated 10,000 to 100,000 birds die of botulism annually. The disease is commonly called "limberneck". In some large outbreaks, a million or more birds may die. Ducks appear to be affected most often. An [[enzootic]] form of duck botulism in the Western US and Canada is known as "western duck sickness".<ref>W.B. Gross (1984), Botulism, in "Diseases of poultry", ed. by M.S. Hofstad, Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA; {{ISBN|0-8138-0430-2}}, 8th ed., p. 257</ref> Botulism also affects commercially raised poultry. In chickens, the mortality rate varies from a few birds to 40% of the flock.

Botulism seems to be relatively uncommon in domestic mammals; however, in some parts of the world, epidemics with up to 65% mortality are seen in cattle. The prognosis is poor in large animals that are recumbent.

In cattle, the symptoms may include drooling, restlessness, incoordination, urine retention, [[dysphagia]], and sternal recumbency. Laterally recumbent animals are usually very close to death. In sheep, the symptoms may include drooling, a serous nasal discharge, stiffness, and incoordination. Abdominal respiration may be observed and the tail may switch on the side. As the disease progresses, the limbs may become paralyzed and death may occur. Phosphorus-deficient cattle, especially in southern Africa, are inclined to ingest bones and carrion containing clostridial toxins and consequently develop ''lame sickness'' or ''lamsiekte''.

The clinical signs in horses are similar to cattle. The muscle paralysis is progressive; it usually begins at the hindquarters and gradually moves to the front limbs, neck, and head. Death generally occurs 24 to 72 hours after initial symptoms and results from respiratory paralysis. Some foals are found dead without other clinical signs.

''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' type C toxin has been incriminated as the cause of [[grass sickness]], a condition in horses which occurs in rainy and hot summers in [[Northern Europe]]. The main symptom is [[pharynx]] paralysis.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Blood DC, Henderson JA, Radostits OM | title = Veterinary Medicine | publisher = Baillière Tindall | location = London | edition = 5th | year = 1979 | isbn = 978-0-7020-0718-7 | pages = 1060 (Grass sickness)}}</ref>

[[Domestic dog]]s may develop systemic toxemia after consuming ''C. botulinum'' type C exotoxin or spores within bird carcasses or other infected meat<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vetbook.org/wiki/dog/index.php/Botulism |title=Dogs / Botulism |publisher=Vet Book |date=12 August 2012 |access-date=23 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221092822/http://www.vetbook.org/wiki/dog/index.php/Botulism |archive-date=21 February 2014 }}</ref> but are generally resistant to the more severe effects of ''C. botulinum'' type C. Symptoms include flaccid muscle paralysis, which can lead to death due to cardiac and respiratory arrest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/poultry/botulism_limberneck_western_duck_sickness/overview_of_botulism_in_poultry.html|title=Overview of botulism in poultry|publisher=Merck Manuals|date=31 March 2012|access-date=23 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204022428/http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/poultry/botulism_limberneck_western_duck_sickness/overview_of_botulism_in_poultry.html|archive-date=4 February 2014}}</ref>

Pigs are relatively resistant to botulism. Reported symptoms include anorexia, refusal to drink, vomiting, pupillary dilation, and muscle paralysis.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Botulism |title=Merck Veterinary Manual |edition=8th | veditors = Aiello SE, Mays A |location=Whitehouse Station, NJ |publisher=Merck and Co. |date=1988 |pages=442–44}}</ref>

In poultry and wild birds, [[flaccid paralysis]] is usually seen in the legs, wings, neck and eyelids. Broiler chickens with the toxicoinfectious form may also have diarrhea with excess [[urate]]s.

=== Prevention in non-human species ===
[[File:Waarschuwingsbord tegen botulisme bij Noordhollandskanaal, Bestanddeelnr 928-7134.jpg|thumb|Sign on the [[Noordhollandsch Kanaal]] in 1976, warning bathers of the presence of ''C. botulinum'' in the water.]]
One of the main routes of exposure for botulism is through the consumption of food contaminated with ''C. botulinum''. Food-borne botulism can be prevented in domestic animals through careful inspection of the feed, purchasing high quality feed from reliable sources, and ensuring proper storage. Poultry litter and animal carcasses are places in which ''C. botulinum'' spores are able to germinate so it is advised to avoid spreading poultry litter or any carcass containing materials on fields producing feed materials due to their potential for supporting ''C. botulinum'' growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rasetti-Escargueil |first1=Christine |last2=Lemichez |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Popoff |first3=Michel R. |title=Public Health Risk Associated with Botulism as Foodborne Zoonoses |journal=Toxins |date=30 December 2019 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=17 |doi=10.3390/toxins12010017 |pmid=31905908 |pmc=7020394 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, water sources should be checked for dead or dying animals, and fields should be checked for animal remains prior to mowing for hay or silage. Correcting any dietary deficiencies can also prevent animals from consuming contaminated materials such as bones or carcasses.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Botulism in Animals - Generalized Conditions |url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/clostridial-diseases/botulism-in-animals |access-date=5 May 2023 |website=Merck Veterinary Manual |language=en-US}}</ref> Raw materials used for silage or feed mixed on site should be checked for any sign of mold or rotten appearance. Acidification of animal feed can reduce, but will not eliminate, the risk of toxin formation, especially in carcasses that remain whole.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Anniballi |first1=Fabrizio |last2=Fiore |first2=Alfonsina |last3=Löfström |first3=Charlotta |last4=Skarin |first4=Hanna |last5=Auricchio |first5=Bruna |last6=Woudstra |first6=Cédric |last7=Bano |first7=Luca |last8=Segerman |first8=Bo |last9=Koene |first9=Miriam |last10=Båverud |first10=Viveca |last11=Hansen |first11=Trine |last12=Fach |first12=Patrick |last13=Åberg |first13=Annica Tevell |last14=Hedeland |first14=Mikael |last15=Engvall |first15=Eva Olsson |last16=De Medici |first16=Dario |title=Management of Animal Botulism Outbreaks: From Clinical Suspicion to Practical Countermeasures to Prevent or Minimize Outbreaks |journal=Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science |date=September 2013 |volume=11 |issue=S1 |pages=S191–S199 |doi=10.1089/bsp.2012.0089 |pmid=23971806 |url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/59874124/bsp_2E2012_2E0089.pdf }}</ref>

==== Vaccines in animals ====
Vaccines have been developed for use in animals to prevent botulism. The availability and approval of these vaccines varies depending on the location, with places experiencing more cases generally having more vaccines available and routine vaccination is more common.<ref name=":3" />

A variety of vaccines have been developed for the prevention of botulism in livestock. Most initial vaccinations require multiple doses at intervals from 2–6 weeks, however, some newer vaccines require only one shot. This mainly depends on the type of vaccine and manufacturers recommendations. All vaccines require annual boosters to maintain immunity. Many of these vaccines can be used on multiple species including cattle, sheep, and goats with some labeled for use in horses and mules as well as separate vaccines for mink. Additionally, vaccination during an outbreak is as beneficial as therapeutic treatment in cattle, and this method is also used in horses and pheasants.<ref name=":3" />

The use of region specific toxoids to immunize animals has been shown to be effective. Toxoid types C and D used to immunize cattle is a useful vaccination method in South Africa and Australia. Toxoid has also been shown to be an appropriate method of immunizing minks and pheasants. In endemic areas, for example Kentucky, vaccination with type B toxoid appears to be effective.<ref name=":2" />