Editing Bacteriophage (section)

== Bacteriophage–host symbiosis ==
Temperate phages are bacteriophages that integrate their genetic material into the host as extrachromosomal episomes or as a [[prophage]] during a [[lysogenic cycle]].<ref name="Cieślik_2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cieślik M, Bagińska N, Jończyk-Matysiak E, Węgrzyn A, Węgrzyn G, Górski A | title = Temperate Bacteriophages-The Powerful Indirect Modulators of Eukaryotic Cells and Immune Functions | journal = Viruses | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | page = 1013 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 34071422 | pmc = 8228536 | doi = 10.3390/v13061013 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Wendling_2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wendling CC, Refardt D, Hall AR | title = Fitness benefits to bacteria of carrying prophages and prophage-encoded antibiotic-resistance genes peak in different environments | journal = Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 515–528 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33347602 | pmc = 7986917 | doi = 10.1111/evo.14153 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirsch JM, Brzozowski RS, Faith D, Round JL, Secor PR, Duerkop BA | title = Bacteriophage-Bacteria Interactions in the Gut: From Invertebrates to Mammals | journal = Annual Review of Virology | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 95–113 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34255542 | pmc = 8484061 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-virology-091919-101238 }}</ref> Some temperate phages can confer fitness advantages to their host in numerous ways, including giving antibiotic resistance through the transfer or introduction of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs),<ref name="Wendling_2021" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brenciani A, Bacciaglia A, Vignaroli C, Pugnaloni A, Varaldo PE, Giovanetti E | title = Phim46.1, the main Streptococcus pyogenes element carrying mef(A) and tet(O) genes | journal = Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 221–229 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19858262 | pmc = 2798480 | doi = 10.1128/AAC.00499-09 }}</ref> protecting hosts from phagocytosis,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jahn MT, Arkhipova K, Markert SM, Stigloher C, Lachnit T, Pita L, Kupczok A, Ribes M, Stengel ST, Rosenstiel P, Dutilh BE, Hentschel U | title = A Phage Protein Aids Bacterial Symbionts in Eukaryote Immune Evasion | journal = Cell Host & Microbe | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 542–550.e5 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31561965 | doi = 10.1016/j.chom.2019.08.019 | s2cid = 203580138 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leigh BA | title = Cooperation among Conflict: Prophages Protect Bacteria from Phagocytosis | language = English | journal = Cell Host & Microbe | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 450–452 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31600498 | doi = 10.1016/j.chom.2019.09.003 | s2cid = 204243652 | doi-access = free }}</ref> protecting hosts from secondary infection through superinfection exclusion,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ali Y, Koberg S, Heßner S, Sun X, Rabe B, Back A, Neve H, Heller KJ | title = Temperate Streptococcus thermophilus phages expressing superinfection exclusion proteins of the Ltp type | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 5 | page = 98 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24659988 | pmc = 3952083 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00098 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McGrath S, Fitzgerald GF, van Sinderen D | title = Identification and characterization of phage-resistance genes in temperate lactococcal bacteriophages | journal = Molecular Microbiology | volume = 43 | issue = 2 | pages = 509–520 | date = January 2002 | pmid = 11985726 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2002.02763.x | s2cid = 7084706 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Douwe M, McGrath J, Fitzgerald S, van Sinderen GF |title=Identification and Characterization of Lactococcal-Prophage-Carried Superinfection Exclusion Genes▿ † |publisher=American Society for Microbiology (ASM) |oclc=679550931}}</ref> enhancing host pathogenicity,<ref name="Cieślik_2021" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brüssow H, Canchaya C, Hardt WD | title = Phages and the evolution of bacterial pathogens: from genomic rearrangements to lysogenic conversion | journal = Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 560–602, table of contents | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15353570 | pmc = 515249 | doi = 10.1128/MMBR.68.3.560-602.2004 }}</ref> or enhancing bacterial metabolism or growth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Edlin G, Lin L, Kudrna R | title = Lambda lysogens of E. coli reproduce more rapidly than non-lysogens | journal = Nature | volume = 255 | issue = 5511 | pages = 735–737 | date = June 1975 | pmid = 1094307 | doi = 10.1038/255735a0 | bibcode = 1975Natur.255..735E | s2cid = 4156346 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sekulovic O, Fortier LC | title = Global transcriptional response of Clostridium difficile carrying the CD38 prophage | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 81 | issue = 4 | pages = 1364–1374 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25501487 | pmc = 4309704 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.03656-14 | bibcode = 2015ApEnM..81.1364S | veditors = Schaffner DW }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossmann FS, Racek T, Wobser D, Puchalka J, Rabener EM, Reiger M, Hendrickx AP, Diederich AK, Jung K, Klein C, Huebner J | title = Phage-mediated dispersal of biofilm and distribution of bacterial virulence genes is induced by quorum sensing | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = e1004653 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25706310 | pmc = 4338201 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004653 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Obeng N, Pratama AA, Elsas JD | title = The Significance of Mutualistic Phages for Bacterial Ecology and Evolution | language = English | journal = Trends in Microbiology | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 440–449 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 26826796 | doi = 10.1016/j.tim.2015.12.009 | s2cid = 3565635 | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/241447214/1_s2.0_S0966842X15003005_main.pdf }}</ref> Bacteriophage–host symbiosis may benefit bacteria by providing selective advantages while passively replicating the phage genome.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li G, Cortez MH, Dushoff J, Weitz JS | title = When to be temperate: on the fitness benefits of lysis vs. lysogeny | journal = Virus Evolution | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages =  veaa042| date = July 2020 | pmid = 36204422 | pmc = 9532926 | doi = 10.1093/ve/veaa042 | biorxiv = 10.1101/709758 }}</ref>