Editing Ancient Egypt (section)

==Culture==

===Daily life===
{{Further|Clothing in ancient Egypt|Dance in ancient Egypt|Music of Egypt#Old Kingdom}}
[[File:LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png|thumb|left|Lower-class occupations]]

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of [[mudbrick]] designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=401}} [[Ancient Egyptian pottery|Ceramics]] served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=403}}
[[File:Ägyptischer Maler um 1400 v. Chr. 001.jpg|thumb|Egyptians celebrated feasts and festivals, accompanied by music and dance.]]
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from [[animal fat]] and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=405}} Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and [[Beauty and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt|cosmetics]]. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's [[income]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|pp=406–407}}

Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported [[lute]]s and [[lyre]]s from Asia.{{sfnp|Music in Ancient Egypt|2003}} The [[sistrum]] was a rattle-like [[musical instrument]] that was especially important in religious ceremonies.
[[File:ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg|right|thumb|Ruins of Deir el-Medina]]
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. [[Senet]], a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was [[mehen (game)|mehen]], which had a circular gaming board. "[[Hounds and Jackals]]" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from a [[List of Theban tombs|Theban tomb]] of the Egyptian pharaoh [[Amenemhat IV]] that dates to the [[13th Dynasty]].{{sfnmp|1a1=Metcalfe|1y=2018|2a1=Seaburn|2y=2018}} Juggling and [[ball game]]s were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at [[Beni Hasan]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=126}} The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed [[Hunting, fishing and animals in ancient Egypt|hunting, fishing]], and boating as well.

The excavation of the workers' village of [[Deir el-Medina]] has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.{{sfnp|Hayes|1973|p=380}}

===Cuisine===
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{{Main|Ancient Egyptian cuisine}}
[[File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg|thumb|Hunting game birds and plowing a field, tomb of [[Nefermaat]] and his wife [[Itet]] ({{circa|2700 BC}})]]

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the [[Egyptian cuisine|cuisine of modern Egypt]] retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|pp=399–400}}

===Architecture===
<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids of Giza]] and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large [[stone structures]] with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|pp=94–97}}

The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in [[Malkata]] and [[Amarna]], show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs.{{sfnp|Badawy|1968|p=50}} Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, [[Djoser]]'s mortuary complex, include [[post and lintel]] supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the [[pylon (architecture)|pylon]], the open [[courtyard]], and the enclosed [[hypostyle]] hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period.{{sfnp|Types of temples in ancient Egypt|2003}} The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the [[mastaba]], a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground [[Chamber tomb|burial chamber]]. The [[Pyramid of Djoser|step pyramid of Djoser]] is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.{{sfnp|Dodson|1991|p=23}} The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal [[Nubian pyramids|pyramids of Nubia]].{{sfnp|Dodson|Ikram|2008|pages=218, 275–276}}

<gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="170">
File:Model of a Porch and Garden MET DP350593.jpg|Model of a household porch and garden, {{circa|1981–1975 BC}}
File:The Temple of Dendur MET DT563.jpg|The [[Temple of Dendur]], completed by 10 BC, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
File:Philae temple at night.jpg|The well preserved Temple of Isis from [[Philae]] is an example of [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|Egyptian architecture]] and [[architectural sculpture]].
File:Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg|Illustration of various types of capitals, by [[Karl Richard Lepsius]]
</gallery>

===Art===
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{{Main|Art of ancient Egypt|Portraiture in ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna MET DT10878.jpg|thumb|Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna, {{circa|1400}} BC]]

The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=29}} These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The [[Narmer Palette]], for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=21}} Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=12}}

[[File:Calcite Basin Supporting a Boat with Shrine00 (6).jpg|thumb|Egyptian [[Wooden tomb model|tomb models]] as funerary goods]]
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with [[gum arabic]] as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=105}}

Pharaohs used [[relief]]s to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of [[funerary art]], such as [[Ushabti|shabti]] statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=122}} During the Middle Kingdom, [[Wooden tomb model|wooden or clay models]] depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the [[afterlife]], these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=74}}

Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]-style frescoes were found in [[Avaris]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=204}} The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the [[Amarna Period]], where figures were radically altered to conform to [[Akhenaten]]'s revolutionary religious ideas.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=149}} This style, known as [[Amarna art]], was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=158}}

<gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="170">
File:Kneeling portrait statue of Amenemhat holding a stele with an inscription 01.jpg|Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; {{Circa|1500 BC}}
File:Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|Fresco which depicts [[Nebamun]] hunting birds; {{Circa}} 1350&nbsp;BC
File:Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III 01.jpg|Portrait head of pharaoh [[Hatshepsut]] or [[Thutmose III]]; 1480–1425 BC
File:Falcon Box with Wrapped Contents MET 12.182.5a b EGDP023129.jpg|Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30&nbsp;BC
</gallery>

===Religious beliefs===
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{{Main|Ancient Egyptian religion}}
[[File:The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Book of the Dead]] was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.]]

Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]]. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by [[Egyptian pantheon|gods]] who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this [[Ancient Egyptian deities|pantheon]] changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting [[Egyptian mythology|myths]] and stories into a coherent system.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=102}} These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.{{sfnp|Redford|2003|p=106}}
[[File:La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg|alt=Painted relief of a seated man with green skin and tight garments, a man with the head of a jackal, and a man with the head of a falcon|thumb|The gods [[Osiris]], [[Anubis]], and [[Horus]] in the tomb of Horemheb ([[KV57]]) in the Valley of the Kings]]
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=117}} After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of [[oracle]]s to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=313}}

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or ''aspects''. In addition to the body, each person had a ''šwt'' (shadow), a ''ba'' (personality or soul), a ''ka'' (life-force), and a ''name''.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|pp=79, 94–95}} The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ''ka'' and ''ba'' and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an ''akh'', or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "[[Maat#Afterlife|feather of truth]]". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.{{sfnp|Wasserman|1994|pp=150–153}} If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten by [[Ammit]] the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

===Burial customs===
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{{Main|Ancient Egyptian funerary practices}}
[[File:Anubis attending the mummy of Sennedjem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Anubis]], the god associated with mummification and burial rituals, attending to a mummy]]

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by [[Mummy|mummification]], performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=122}} Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by [[desiccation]]. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the [[Organ (anatomy)|internal organs]], wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in [[canopic jar]]s.{{sfnp|Ikram|Dodson|1998|p=29}}

By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called [[natron]]. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted [[cartonnage]] mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.{{sfnp|Ikram|Dodson|1998|pp=40, 51, 138}}

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. [[Ancient Egyptian funerary texts|Funerary texts]] were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were [[Ushabti|shabti]] statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.{{sfnp|Shabtis|2001}} Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=124}}