Editing Sigmund Freud (section)

==Legacy==
[[File:Sigmund Freud statue, London 1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The 1971 [[Statue of Sigmund Freud, Hampstead|Sigmund Freud memorial in Hampstead, North London]], by [[Oscar Nemon]], is located near to where Sigmund and Anna Freud lived, now the [[Freud Museum]]. The building behind the statue is the [[Tavistock Clinic]], a major psychological health care institution.]]
Freud's legacy, though a highly contested area of controversy, has been assessed as "one of the strongest influences on twentieth-century thought, its impact comparable only to that of [[Darwinism]] and [[Marxism]],"<ref>{{cite book|last=Frosh|first=Stephen|title=The Politics of Psychoanalysis|year=1987|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=0-333-39614-6|page=1}}</ref> with its range of influence permeating "all the fields of culture ... so far as to change our way of life and concept of man."<ref>{{cite book|last=Ellenberger|first=Henri F.|title=The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry|year=1970|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-465-01673-0|page=546}}</ref>

===Psychotherapy===
Though not the first methodology in the practice of individual verbal psychotherapy,<ref>H. Ellenberger, ''The Discovery of the Unconscious'', 1970, pp. 301, 486, 536, 331–409.</ref> Freud's psychoanalytic system came to dominate the field from early in the twentieth century, forming the basis for many later variants. While these systems have adopted different theories and techniques, all have followed Freud by attempting to achieve psychic and behavioral change through having patients talk about their difficulties.<ref name=Systems>Ford & Urban 1965, p. 109</ref> Psychoanalysis is not as influential as it once was in Europe and the United States, though in some parts of the world, notably Latin America, its influence in the later 20th century expanded substantially. Psychoanalysis also remains influential within many contemporary schools of psychotherapy and has led to innovative therapeutic work in schools and with families and groups.<ref>Pick, Daniel (2015). ''Psychoanalysis: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. pp. 19, 121.</ref> There is a substantial body of research which demonstrates the efficacy of the clinical methods of psychoanalysis<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1192/bji.2017.4| pmid=29953128| pmc=6020924|title = The scientific standing of psychoanalysis| journal=BJPsych International| volume=15| issue=1| pages=5–8|year = 2018|last1 = Solms|first1 = Mark|issn=2056-4740}}</ref> and of related [[psychodynamic]] therapies in treating a wide range of psychological disorders.<ref>[http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/Evidence%20in%20support%20of%20psychodynamic%20psychotherapy%20-updated%20Nov%202013.pdf Evidence in Support of Psychodynamic Therapy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075051/http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/Evidence%20in%20support%20of%20psychodynamic%20psychotherapy%20-updated%20Nov%202013.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} Jessica Yakeley and Peter Hobson (2013)</ref>

The [[neo-Freudian]]s, a group including [[Alfred Adler]], [[Otto Rank]], [[Karen Horney]], [[Harry Stack Sullivan]] and [[Erich Fromm]], rejected Freud's theory of instinctual drive, emphasized interpersonal relations and self-assertiveness, and made modifications to therapeutic practice that reflected these theoretical shifts. The neo-Freudian analysis places more emphasis on the patient's relationship with the analyst and less on the exploration of the unconscious.<ref name=Kovel/>

[[Jacques Lacan]] approached psychoanalysis through [[linguistics]] and literature. Lacan believed that most of Freud's essential work had been done before 1905, and that [[ego psychology]] and [[object relations theory]] were based upon misreadings of Freud's work. Lacan saw desire as more important than need.<ref>Mitchell, Stephen A. & Black, Margaret J. ''Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought''. New York: Basic Books, 1995, pp. 193–203</ref>

[[Wilhelm Reich]] developed some of  Freud's ideas, such as Actualneurosis. Freud applied that idea both to infants and to adults. In the former case, seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses and in the latter incomplete sexual release. Unlike Freud, Reich retained the idea that actual experience, especially sexual experience, was of key significance. By the 1920s, Reich had "taken Freud's original ideas about sexual release to the point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthy function." Reich was also "developing his ideas about character into a form that would later take shape, first as "muscular armour", and eventually as a transducer of universal biological energy, the "orgone"."<ref>Kovel 1991, pp.176-178</ref>

[[Fritz Perls]], who helped to develop [[Gestalt therapy]], was influenced by Reich, Jung, and Freud. The key idea of gestalt therapy is that Freud overlooked the structure of awareness, "an active process that moves toward the construction of organized meaningful wholes{{nbsp}}... between an organism and its environment." These wholes, called ''gestalts'', are "patterns involving all the layers of organismic function – thought, feeling, and activity", to which improper formation, in Perls' view, gives rise to neurosis and anxieties. Gestalt therapy attempts to cure patients by placing them in contact with "immediate organismic needs." Perls rejected the verbal approach of classical psychoanalysis; favoring a workshop style approach.<ref name=Kovel/>

[[Arthur Janov]]'s [[primal therapy]], which has been influential post-Freudian psychotherapy, resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on the early childhood experience but has also differences with it. While Janov's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology like that of Reich or Perls, in which need is primary while wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy of dangerous situations, for Janov the key event in the child's life is an awareness that the parents do not love it.<ref name="Kovel">{{cite book |author=Kovel, Joel |url=https://archive.org/details/completeguidetot0000kove_x8w2 |title=A Complete Guide to Therapy |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013631-9 |location=London |pages=96, 123–35, 165–98}}</ref> Janov writes in ''[[The Primal Scream]]'' (1970) that primal therapy has in some ways returned to Freud's early ideas and techniques.<ref>Janov, Arthur. ''The Primal Scream. Primal Therapy: The Cure for Neurosis''. London: Sphere Books, 1977, p. 206</ref>

[[Ellen Bass]] and Laura Davis, co-authors of ''[[The Courage to Heal]]'' (1988), are described as "champions of survivorship" by [[Frederick Crews]], who considers Freud the key influence upon them, although in his view they are indebted not to classic psychoanalysis but to "the pre-psychoanalytic Freud{{nbsp}}... who supposedly took pity on his hysterical patients, found that they were all harboring memories of early abuse{{nbsp}}... and cured them by unknotting their repression." Crews sees Freud as having anticipated the [[recovered memory]] movement by emphasizing "mechanical cause-and-effect relations between symptomatology and the premature stimulation of one body zone or another", and with pioneering its "technique of thematically matching a patient's symptom with a sexually symmetrical 'memory.{{'"}} Crews believes that Freud's confidence in accurate recall of early memories anticipates the theories of recovered memory therapists such as [[Lenore Terr]], which in his view have led to people being wrongfully imprisoned.<ref>Crews, Frederick, et al. ''The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute''. New York: The New York Review of Books, 1995, pp. 206–12</ref>

===Science===
Research projects designed to test Freud's theories empirically have led to a vast literature on the topic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Richard |title=Freud and Psychoanalysis |location=Milton Keynes |publisher=Open University Press |year=1985 |page=96 |isbn=978-0-335-10180-1 |quote=the number of relevant studies runs into thousands"}}</ref> American psychologists began to attempt to study repression in the experimental laboratory around 1930. In 1934, when the psychologist [[Saul Rosenzweig]] sent Freud reprints of his attempts to study repression, Freud responded with a dismissive letter stating that "the wealth of reliable observations" on which psychoanalytic assertions were based made them "independent of experimental verification."<ref>{{cite book |author1=MacKinnon, Donald W. |author2=Dukes, William F. |editor=Postman, Leo |title=Psychology in the Making: Histories of Selected Research Problems |url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyinmaki00postrich |url-access=registration |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |year=1962 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyinmaki00postrich/page/663 663], 703}}</ref> Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg concluded in 1977 that some of Freud's concepts were supported by [[empirical evidence]]. Their analysis of research literature supported Freud's concepts of oral and anal personality constellations, his account of the role of Oedipal factors in certain aspects of male personality functioning, his formulations about the relatively greater concern about the loss of love in women's as compared to men's personality economy, and his views about the instigating effects of homosexual anxieties on the formation of paranoid delusions. They also found limited and equivocal support for [[Sigmund Freud's views on homosexuality|Freud's theories about the development of homosexuality]]. They found that several of Freud's other theories, including his portrayal of dreams as primarily containers of secret, unconscious wishes, as well as some of his views about the [[psychodynamics]] of women, were either not supported or contradicted by research. Reviewing the issues again in 1996, they concluded that much experimental data relevant to Freud's work exists, and supports some of his major ideas and theories.<ref name=FisherG>Fisher, Seymour & Greenberg, Roger P. Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996, pp. 13–15, 284–85</ref>

Other viewpoints include those of psychologist and science historian Malcolm Macmillan, who concludes in ''Freud Evaluated'' (1991) that "Freud's method is not capable of yielding objective data about mental processes".<ref>Malcolm Macmillan, ''Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc'', MIT Press, 1997, p. xxiii.</ref> Morris Eagle states that it has been "demonstrated quite conclusively that because of the epistemologically contaminated status of clinical data derived from the clinical situation, such data have questionable probative value in the testing of psychoanalytic hypotheses".<ref>p. 32, Morris N. Eagle, "The Epistemological Status of Recent Developments in Psychoanalytic Theory", in 'R.S. Cohen and L. Lauden (eds.), ''Physics, Philosophy and Psychoanalysis'', Reidel 1983, pp. 31–55.</ref> [[Richard Webster (British author)|Richard Webster]], in ''[[Why Freud Was Wrong]]'' (1995), described psychoanalysis as "perhaps the most complex and successful" [[pseudoscience]] in history.<ref name=Webster>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Webster |year=2005 |title=Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis |publisher=The Orwell Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-9515922-5-0 |pages=12, 437}}</ref> Crews believes that psychoanalysis has no scientific or therapeutic merit.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Frederick Crews |title=The Verdict on Freud |journal=Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=63–68 |date=1 March 1996|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00331.x |s2cid=143453699 }}</ref> [[University of Chicago]] research associate Kurt Jacobsen takes these critics to task for their own supposedly dogmatic and historically naive views both about psychoanalysis and the nature of science.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jacobsen|first=Kurt|title=Freud's Foes: Psychoanalysis, Science and Resistance|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7425-2263-3|location=Lanham, Maryland}}</ref>

[[I. Bernard Cohen]] regards Freud's ''Interpretation of Dreams'' as a revolutionary work of science, the last such work to be published in book form.<ref>Cohen, I. Bernard. ''Revolution in Science''. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985, p. 356.</ref> In contrast [[Allan Hobson]] believes that Freud, by rhetorically discrediting 19th century investigators of dreams such as [[Alfred Maury]] and the [[Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys|Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis]] at a time when study of the physiology of the brain was only beginning, interrupted the development of scientific dream theory for half a century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Allan |last=Hobson |year=1988 |title=The Dreaming Brain| publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=New York |isbn = 978-0-14-012498-9 |page=42}}</ref> The dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of Freudian dream theory being validated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://psych.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2000d.html |title=Domhoff: Beyond Freud and Jung |publisher=Psych.ucsc.edu |date=23 September 2000 |access-date=21 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825091204/http://psych.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2000d.html |archive-date=25 August 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Karl Popper.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Head high portrait of a man about sixty years old|[[Karl Popper]] argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were unfalsifiable.]]
[[Karl Popper]] claimed that [[Freud's Psychoanalytic Theories]] were presented in [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] form, meaning that no experiment could ever disprove them.<ref name=Popper>Popper, Karl. ''Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge.'' London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33–39</ref> The philosopher [[Adolf Grünbaum]] argues in ''[[The Foundations of Psychoanalysis]]'' (1984) that Popper was mistaken and that many of Freud's theories are empirically testable, a position with which others such as Eysenck agree.<ref>[[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck, Hans]], [[Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire]] Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1986, p. 14.</ref><ref>Grünbaum, A. ''The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique.'' University of California Press, 1984, pp. 97–126.</ref> The philosopher [[Roger Scruton]], writing in ''Sexual Desire'' (1986), also rejected Popper's arguments, pointing to the theory of repression as an example of a Freudian theory that does have testable consequences. Scruton nevertheless concluded that psychoanalysis is not genuinely scientific, because it involves an unacceptable dependence on metaphor.<ref>{{cite book |title = Sexual Desire: A Philosophical Investigation |publisher = Phoenix Books |author = Roger Scruton |year = 1994 |page = 201 |isbn = 978-1-85799-100-0}}</ref> The philosopher Donald Levy agrees with Grünbaum that Freud's theories are falsifiable but disputes Grünbaum's contention that therapeutic success is only the empirical basis on which they stand or fall, arguing that a much wider range of empirical evidence can be adduced via clinical case material.<ref>Levy, Donald, ''Freud Among the Philosophers'' (1996), pp. 129–32.</ref>

In a study of psychoanalysis in the United States, Nathan Hale reported on the "decline of psychoanalysis in psychiatry" during 1965–1985.<ref>Nathan G. Hale, ''The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1917–1985'', Oxford University Press, 1995 (pp. 300–21).</ref> The continuation of this trend was noted by Alan Stone: "As academic psychology becomes more 'scientific' and psychiatry more biological, psychoanalysis is being brushed aside."<ref>Alan A. Stone, "Where Will Psychoanalysis Survive?", Keynote address to the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 9 December 1995. {{cite web |url=http://harvardmagazine.com/1997/01/original.html |title=Original Address|author= Alan A. Stone, M.D |access-date=22 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327083025/http://harvardmagazine.com/1997/01/original.html |archive-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> Paul Stepansky, while noting that psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities, records the "vanishingly small number of psychiatric residents who choose to pursue psychoanalytic training" and the "nonanalytic backgrounds of psychiatric chairpersons at major universities" among the evidence he cites for his conclusion that "Such historical trends attest to the marginalisation of psychoanalysis within American psychiatry."<ref>Paul E. Stepansky, ''Psychoanalysis at the Margins'', 2009, New York: Other Press, pp. 11, 14.</ref> Nonetheless, Freud was ranked as the third most cited psychologist of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |last1=Haggbloom |first1=Steven J. |last2=Warnick |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell III |first9=John L. |last10=Beavers |first10=Jamie |last11=Monte |first11=Emmanuelle |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129035801/http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |archive-date=29 January 2017|citeseerx=10.1.1.586.1913 |s2cid=145668721 }}</ref> It is also claimed that in moving beyond the "orthodoxy of the not so distant past{{nbsp}}... new ideas and new research has led to an intense reawakening of interest in psychoanalysis from neighbouring disciplines ranging from the humanities to [[neuroscience]] and including the non-analytic therapies".<ref>Cooper, Arnold M. (ed.), Editor's Preface to ''Contemporary Psychoanalysis in America'' American Psychiatric Pub. 2008, pp. xiii–xiv</ref>

Research in the emerging field of [[neuropsychoanalysis]], founded by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst [[Mark Solms]],<ref>Kaplan-Solms, K. & Solms, Mark. ''Clinical studies in neuro-psychoanalysis: Introduction to a depth neuropsychology.'' London: Karnac Books, 2000; Solms, Mark & Turbull, O. ''The brain and the inner world: An introduction to the neuroscience of subjective experience.'' New York: Other Press, 2002.</ref> has proved controversial with some psychoanalysts criticising the very concept itself.<ref>Blass, Rachel B. and Carmeli, Zvi, "The case against neuropsychoanalysis. On fallacies underlying psychoanalysis' latest scientific trend and its negative impact on psychoanalytic discourse", ''[[The International Journal of Psychoanalysis]]'', Vol. 88, Issue 1, pp. 19–40, February 2007.</ref> Solms and his colleagues have argued for neuro-scientific findings being "broadly consistent" with Freudian theories pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lambert | first1 = Anthony J. | last2 = Good | first2 = Kimberly S. | last3 = Kirk | first3 = Ian J. | year = 2009 | title = Testing the repression hypothesis: Effects of emotional valence on memory suppression in the think&nbsp;– No think task | journal = Conscious Cognition | volume = 19 | issue = 1| pages = 281–93 | doi = 10.1016/j.concog.2009.09.004 | pmid = 19804991 | s2cid = 32958143 }}</ref><!-- so was this ever printed? that's nearly six years ago ---><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Depue | first1 = Brenden E | last2 = Curran | first2 = Tim | last3 = Banich | first3 = Maria T | year = 2007 | title = Prefrontal regions orchestrate suppression of emotional memories via a two-phase process | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17626877/ | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 317 | issue = 5835 | pages = 215–19 | doi = 10.1126/science.1139560 | pmid = 17626877 | bibcode = 2007Sci...317..215D | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922213218/http://psych.colorado.edu/~tcurran/depue_curran_banich_2007.pdf | archive-date = 22 September 2017| citeseerx = 10.1.1.561.1627 | s2cid = 1616027 }}</ref> Neuroscientists who have endorsed Freud's work include [[David Eagleman]] who believes that Freud "transformed psychiatry" by providing "the first exploration of the way in which hidden states of the brain participate in driving thought and behavior"<ref>Eagleman, David ''Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain'' Edinburgh: Canongate, 2011, p. 17</ref> and Nobel laureate [[Eric Kandel]] who argues that "psychoanalysis still represents the most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of the mind."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kandel | first1 = ER | year = 1999 |url= http://www.columbia.edu/itc/biology/pollack/w4065/client_edit/readings/kandel_1999.pdf | title = Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: a new intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited | doi = 10.1176/ajp.156.4.505 | pmid = 10200728 | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 156 | issue = 4| pages = 505–24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060922234529/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/biology/pollack/w4065/client_edit/readings/kandel_1999.pdf | archive-date = 22 September 2006 }}</ref>

===Philosophy===
{{see also|Freudo-Marxism}}
[[File:Herbert Marcuse in Newton, Massachusetts 1955.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Herbert Marcuse]] saw similarities between psychoanalysis and [[Marxism]].]]

Psychoanalysis has been interpreted as both radical and conservative. By the 1940s, it had come to be seen as conservative by the European and American intellectual community. Critics outside the psychoanalytic movement, whether on the political left or right, saw Freud as a conservative. Fromm had argued that several aspects of psychoanalytic theory served the interests of political reaction in his ''[[The Fear of Freedom]]'' (1942), an assessment confirmed by sympathetic writers on the right. In ''[[Freud: The Mind of the Moralist]]'' (1959), [[Philip Rieff]] portrayed Freud as a man who urged men to make the best of an inevitably unhappy fate, and was admirable for that reason. In the 1950s, [[Herbert Marcuse]] challenged the then prevailing interpretation of Freud as a conservative in ''[[Eros and Civilization]]'' (1955), as did [[Lionel Trilling]] in ''Freud and the Crisis of Our Culture'' and [[Norman O. Brown]] in ''[[Life Against Death]]'' (1959).<ref>{{cite book |author=Robinson, Paul |title=The Freudian Left |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca and London |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/freudianleftwilh0000robi/page/147 147–49] |isbn=978-0-8014-9716-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/freudianleftwilh0000robi/page/147 }}</ref> ''Eros and Civilization'' helped make the idea that Freud and [[Karl Marx]] were addressing similar questions from different perspectives credible to the left. Marcuse criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding seemingly pessimistic theories such as the death instinct, arguing that they could be turned in a utopian direction. Freud's theories also influenced the [[Frankfurt School]] and [[critical theory]] as a whole.<ref>Jay, Martin. ''The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 86–112.</ref>

Freud has been compared to Marx by Reich, who saw Freud's importance for psychiatry as parallel to that of Marx for economics,<ref>{{cite book |author=Reich, Wilhelm |title=People in Trouble |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleintroublev02reic |url-access=registration |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |year=1976 |page=[https://archive.org/details/peopleintroublev02reic/page/53 53] |isbn=978-0-374-51035-0 }}</ref> and by Paul Robinson, who sees Freud as a revolutionary whose contributions to twentieth-century thought are comparable in importance to Marx's contributions to the nineteenth-century thought.<ref>Robinson, Paul. ''The Freudian Left: Wilhelm Reich, Geza Roheim, Herbert Marcuse''. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1990, p. 7</ref> Fromm calls Freud, Marx, and Einstein the "architects of the modern age", but rejects the idea that Marx and Freud were equally significant, arguing that Marx was both far more historically important and a finer thinker. Fromm nevertheless credits Freud with permanently changing the way human nature is understood.<ref>Fromm, Erich. ''Beyond the Chains of Illusion: My Encounter with Marx & Freud''. London: Sphere Books, 1980, p. 11</ref> [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]] write in ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) that psychoanalysis resembles the [[Russian Revolution]] in that it became corrupted almost from the beginning. They believe this began with Freud's development of the theory of the Oedipus complex, which they see as idealist.<ref>Deleuze, Gilles & Guattari, Félix. ''Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992, p. 55.</ref>

[[Jean-Paul Sartre]] critiques Freud's theory of the unconscious in ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'' (1943), claiming that consciousness is essentially self-conscious.<ref name=Baldwin>{{cite book |author=Thomas Baldwin |editor=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/792 792] |isbn=978-0-19-866132-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/792 }}</ref> [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]] considers Freud to be one of the anticipators of [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]],<ref>Priest, Stephen. ''Merleau-Ponty''. New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 28</ref> while [[Theodor W. Adorno]] considers [[Edmund Husserl]], the founder of phenomenology, to be Freud's philosophical opposite, writing that Husserl's polemic against psychologism could have been directed against psychoanalysis.<ref>Adorno, Theodor W. ''Against Epistemology: A Metacritique. Studies in Husserl and the Phenomenological Antinomies''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1985, p. 96</ref> [[Paul Ricœur]] sees Freud as one of the three "[[masters of suspicion]]", alongside Marx and Nietzsche,<ref name=Ricoeur>{{cite book |last=Ricoeur |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Ricœur |others=Denis Savage (transl.) |title=Freud and Philosophy. An Essay on Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHXFRv7SUrcC |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut]] |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |orig-year=1970 |date=2008 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oHXFRv7SUrcC&pg=PA33 33] |isbn=978-81-208-3305-0}}</ref> for their unmasking 'the lies and [[illusion]]s of [[consciousness]]'.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/viewArticle/431 |first=Rita |last=Felski |author-link=Rita Felski |title=Critique and the Hermeneutics of Suspicion |journal=M/C Journal |volume=15 |number=1 |year=2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323062432/http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/viewArticle/431 |archive-date=23 March 2016|doi=10.5204/mcj.431|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ricœur and [[Jürgen Habermas]] have helped create a "[[Hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] version of Freud", one which "claimed him as the most significant progenitor of the shift from an objectifying, empiricist understanding of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity and interpretation."<ref name=Robinson>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Paul |title=Freud and His Critics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOW1UW5exz4C |year=1993 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=[[Oakland, California]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QOW1UW5exz4C&pg=PA14 14] |isbn=978-0-520-08029-4}}</ref> [[Louis Althusser]] drew on Freud's concept of [[overdetermination]] for his reinterpretation of Marx's ''[[Das Kapital|Capital]]''.<ref name=Cleaver>{{cite book |author=Cleaver, Harry |title=Reading Capital Politically |url=https://archive.org/details/readingcapitalpo00harr |url-access=registration |publisher=Ak Press |location=Leeds |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readingcapitalpo00harr/page/50 50] |isbn=978-1-902593-29-6}}</ref> [[Jean-François Lyotard]] developed a theory of the unconscious that reverses Freud's account of dream-work.<ref>Dufresne, Todd. ''Tales from the Freudian Crypt: The Death Drive in Text and Context''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 130.</ref>

Several scholars see Freud as parallel to [[Plato]], writing that they hold nearly the same theory of dreams and have similar theories of the tripartite structure of the human soul or personality, even if the hierarchy between the parts of the soul is almost reversed.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kahn |first= Charles H. |author-link= Charles H. Kahn |title= Plato's Theory of Desire |journal=[[The Review of Metaphysics]] |volume= 41 |issue= 1 |year= 1987 |pages= 77–103
 |quote= ...{{nbsp}}Plato is perhaps the only major philosopher to anticipate some of the central discoveries of twentieth-century depth psychology, which is, of Freud and his school;{{nbsp}}... |issn= 0034-6632 |jstor= 20128559 |url= https://philpapers.org/archive/KAHPTO.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190520124559/https://philpapers.org/archive/KAHPTO.pdf |archive-date = 20 May 2019}}</ref><ref>" for Freud the basic nature of our mind is the appetite-id part, which is the main source for agency, for Plato, it is the other way around: we are divine, and reason is the essential nature and the origin of our agencies which together with the emotions temper the extreme and disparate tendencies of our behavior." Calian, Florian. [https://www.scribd.com/doc/115919845/Plato-s-Psychology-and-Freud ''Plato's Psychology of Action and the Origin of Agency''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525035710/http://www.scribd.com/doc/115919845/Plato-s-Psychology-and-Freud |date=25 May 2013 }}. Affectivity, Agency (2012), p. 21.</ref> [[Ernest Gellner]] argues that Freud's theories are an inversion of Plato's. Whereas Plato saw a hierarchy inherent in the nature of reality and relied upon it to validate norms, Freud was a naturalist who could not follow such an approach. Both men's theories drew a parallel between the structure of the human mind and that of society, but while Plato wanted to strengthen the super-ego, which Gellner compared to the aristocracy, Freud wanted to strengthen the ego, which corresponded to the middle class.<ref name="Gellner140">Gellner, Ernest. ''The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason''. London: Fontana Press, 1993, pp. 140–43.</ref> [[Paul Vitz]] compares Freudian psychoanalysis to [[Thomism]], noting St. Thomas's belief in the existence of an "unconscious consciousness" and his "frequent use of the word and concept 'libido' – sometimes in a more specific sense than Freud, but always in a manner in agreement with the Freudian use." Vitz suggests that Freud may have been unaware his theory of the unconscious was reminiscent of [[Aquinas]].<ref name=Vitzpages5354/>

===Literature and literary criticism===
The poem "In Memory of Sigmund Freud" was published by [[W. H. Auden]] in his 1940 collection ''[[Another Time (book)|Another Time]]''. Auden describes Freud as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://poets.org/poem/memory-sigmund-freud|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414133136/https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/memory-sigmund-freud|title=In Memory of Sigmund Freud by W. H. Auden – Poems &#124; Academy of American Poets|first=Academy of American|last=Poets|archive-date=14 April 2016|website=poets.org}}</ref><ref>Alexander, Sam, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100710010707/http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/In_Memory_of_Sigmund_Freud "In Memory of Sigmund Freud"] (undated); and Thurschwell, P. ''Sigmund Freud'' London: Routledge, 2009, p. 1.</ref>

Literary critic [[Harold Bloom]] has been influenced by Freud.<ref>Bolla, Peter de. ''Harold Bloom: Towards Historical Rhetorics''. London: Routledge, 1988, p. 19</ref> [[Camille Paglia]] has also been influenced by Freud, whom she calls "Nietzsche's heir" and one of the greatest sexual psychologists in literature, but has rejected the scientific status of his work in her ''[[Sexual Personae]]'' (1990), writing, "Freud has no rivals among his successors because they think he wrote science, when in fact he wrote art."<ref>Paglia, Camille. ''Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson''. London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990, pp. 2, 228.</ref>

===Feminism===
[[File:Betty Friedan 1960.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Shoulder high portrait of a forty-year-old woman with short brownish hair wearing a buttoned sweater|[[Betty Friedan]] criticizes Freud's view of women in her 1963 book ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]''.<ref name=Friedan/>]]
The decline in Freud's reputation has been attributed partly to the revival of [[feminism]].<ref>P. Robinson, ''Freud and His Critics'', 1993, pp. 1–2.</ref> [[Simone de Beauvoir]] criticizes psychoanalysis from an [[Existentialism|existentialist]] standpoint in ''[[The Second Sex]]'' (1949), arguing that Freud saw an "original superiority" in the male that is in reality socially induced.<ref name=Mitchell/> [[Betty Friedan]] criticizes Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963).<ref name=Friedan>Friedan, Betty. ''The Feminine Mystique''. W.W. Norton, 1963, pp. 166–94</ref> Freud's concept of [[penis envy]] was attacked by [[Kate Millett]], who in ''[[Sexual Politics]]'' (1970) accused him of confusion and oversights.<ref>Millett, Kate. ''Sexual Politics''. University of Chicago Press, 2000, pp. 176–203</ref> In 1968, [[Anne Koedt]] wrote in her essay ''[[The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm]]:'' <blockquote>It was Freud's feelings about women's secondary and inferior relationship to men that formed the basis for his theories on female sexuality. Once having laid down the law about the nature of our sexuality, Freud not so strangely discovered a tremendous problem of [[frigidity]] in women. His recommended cure for a frigid woman was psychiatric care. She was suffering from failure to mentally adjust to her 'natural' role as a woman.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Koedt|first=Anne|date=1970|title=The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm by Anne Koedt|url=http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUArchive/vaginalmyth.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106211856/http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUArchive/vaginalmyth.html|archive-date=6 January 2013|access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref></blockquote> [[Naomi Weisstein]] writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Weisstein, Naomi|editor=Schneir, Miriam|title=Feminism in Our Time|publisher=Vintage|year=1994|chapter=Kinder, Küche, Kirche as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female|isbn=978-0-679-74508-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/feminisminourtim0000unse/page/217 217]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/feminisminourtim0000unse/page/217}}</ref>

Freud is also criticized by [[Shulamith Firestone]] and [[Eva Figes]]. In ''[[The Dialectic of Sex]]'' (1970), Firestone argues that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the social context. Firestone interprets Freud's "metaphors" in terms of the facts of power within the family. Figes tries in ''Patriarchal Attitudes'' (1970) to place Freud within a "[[history of ideas]]". [[Juliet Mitchell]] defends Freud against his feminist critics in ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism'' (1974), accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell helped introduce English-speaking feminists to Lacan.<ref name=Mitchell>Mitchell, Juliet. ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis''. London: Penguin Books, 2000, pp. xxix, 303–56</ref> Mitchell is criticized by [[Jane Gallop]] in ''The Daughter's Seduction'' (1982). Gallop compliments Mitchell for her criticism of feminist discussions of Freud but finds her treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.<ref>Gallop, Jane. ''The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1992</ref>

Some French feminists, among them [[Julia Kristeva]] and [[Luce Irigaray]], have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Lacan.<ref>Gallop, Jane & Burke, Carolyn, in Eisenstein, Hester & Jardine, Alice (eds.). ''The Future of Difference''. New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1987, pp. 106–08</ref><ref>Whitford, Margaret. ''Luce Irigaray: Philosophy in the Feminine''. London and New York: Routledge, 1991, pp. 31–32</ref>

Psychologist [[Carol Gilligan]] writes that "The penchant of developmental theorists to project a masculine image, and one that appears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud." She sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Lawrence Kohlberg]]. Gilligan notes that [[Nancy Chodorow]], in contrast to Freud, attributes sexual difference not to anatomy but to the fact that male and female children have different early social environments. Chodorow, writing against the masculine bias of psychoanalysis, "replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own."<ref>Gilligan, Carol. ''In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development''. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 6–8, 18</ref>

In her analysis of Freud's work on religion in relation to gender, [[Judith Van Herik]] noted that Freud paired femininity and the concept of weakness with Christianity and wish fulfillment while associating masculinity and renunciation with Judaism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soble |first=Alan |date=1987 |title=Review of Freud on Femininity and Faith |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40036410 |journal=International Journal for Philosophy of Religion |volume=22 |issue=1/2 |pages=99–102 |jstor=40036410 |issn=0020-7047}}</ref>

[[Toril Moi]] has developed a feminist perspective on psychoanalysis proposing that it is a discourse that "attempts to understand the psychic consequences of three universal traumas: the fact that there are others, the fact of sexual difference, and the fact of death".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moi | first1 = Toril | author-link = Toril Moi | year = 2004 | title = From Femininity to Finitude: Freud, Lacan, and Feminism, again | url = http://www.torilmoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/MOI_FEMININITY.PDF | journal = Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | page = 871 | doi = 10.1086/380630 | s2cid = 146342669 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160623200809/http://www.torilmoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/MOI_FEMININITY.PDF | archive-date = 23 June 2016}}</ref> She replaces Freud's term of castration with [[Stanley Cavell|Stanley Cavell's]] concept of "victimization" which is a more universal term that applies equally to both sexes.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality and Tragedy|url = https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave|url-access = limited|last = Cavell|first = Stanley| author-link=Stanley Cavell |publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|location = New York|pages = [https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave/page/n137 111] and 431|isbn = 978-0-19-513107-9}}</ref> Moi regards this concept of human finitude as a suitable replacement for both castration and sexual difference as the traumatic "discovery of our separate, sexed, mortal existence" and how both men and women come to terms with it.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality, and Tragedy|url = https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave|url-access = limited|last = Cavell|first = Stanley|author-link=Stanley Cavell |publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|location = New York|page = [https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave/page/n457 431]|isbn = 978-0-19-513107-9}}</ref>