Editing Quran (section)

== Writing and printing ==
=== Writing ===
{{Main|Islamic calligraphy}}
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphers]] and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in ''[[Hijazi script|Ḥijāzī]]''-typescript. The ''Hijazi'' style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as ''[[Kufic]]'' scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the ''[[Naskh (script)|naskh]]'', ''[[muhaqqaq]]'', ''[[rayḥānī]]'' and, on rarer occasions, the ''[[thuluth]]'' script. ''Naskh'' was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the ''[[Maghrebi script|Maghribī]]'' style was popular. More distinct is the ''Bihari'' script which was used solely in the north of India. ''[[Nastaʿlīq script|Nastaʻlīq]]'' style was also rarely used in Persian world.<ref name="Déroche-2006">{{Cite encyclopedia |author-link=François Déroche |last=Déroche |first=François |date=2006 |article=Written Transmission |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an |title-link=iarchive:blackwellcompani00ripp 0 |edition=2a reimpr. |editor-last1=Rippin |editor-first1=Andrew |editor-link1=Andrew Rippin |display-editors=etal |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1752-4 |pages=172–87}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author-link1=Peter Riddell |last1=Riddell |first1=Peter G. |last2=Street |first2=Tony |last3=Johns |first3=Anthony Hearle |date=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3nHpsDBm6QC&pg=PA170 |title=Islam: essays on scripture, thought and society: a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns |pages=170–74 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-10692-5}}</ref>

In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or [[Arabic diacritics|tashkeel]]. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the [[Companions of the Prophet|Sahabah]].<ref name="Ibn Taymiyyah">{{Cite book |last=Ibn Taymiyyah |first=Ahmed <!-- |last=ابن تيمية|first=أحمد| --> |url=https://shamela.ws/book/7289/6619 |title=Majmoo' al-Fatawa |publisher=[[King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran]] |year=2004 |volume=12 |publication-place=Madinah, Saudi Arabia |pages=576–578 |language=Arabic |script-title= |trans-title=}}</ref> Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or ''juzʼ''. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.<ref>{{cite book |first=Suraiya |last=Faroqhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95 |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |pages=134–136 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4}}</ref><ref name="MatbaaBosworth1989"/>

Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, [[Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=James |first=David |editor-first1=Emmanuel K |editor-first2=Henry Louis |editor-last1=Akyeampong |editor-last2=Gates |title=Amina bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif |date=1 January 2011 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001/acref-9780195382075-e-0171 |encyclopedia=Dictionary of African Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-538207-5 |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" widths="200" heights="200">
File:Brooklyn Museum - Folio from the "Blue" Qur'an.jpg|Folio from the [[Blue Quran|"Blue" Quran]] at the [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Folio from a Koran (8th-9th century).jpg|''Kufic'' script, eighth or ninth century
File:Qur'anic Manuscript - Maghribi script.jpg|[[Maghrebi script|''Maghribi'' script]], 13th–14th centuries
File:Muhaqqaq script.gif|''[[Muhaqqaq]]'' script, 14th–15th centuries
</gallery>

=== Printing ===
[[File:Quran divided into 6 books.jpg|thumb|Quran divided into six books, published by Dar Ibn Kathir, Damascus-Beirut]]
[[Woodcut|Wood-block printing]] of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=940|title=Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg|website=muslimheritage.com}}</ref>

Arabic [[movable type]] printing was ordered by [[Pope Julius II]] ({{Reign|1503|1512}}) for distribution among [[Middle Eastern Christians]].<ref>{{harvnb|Krek|1979|p=203}}</ref> The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in [[Venice]] in 1537–1538 for the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] market by [[Paganino Paganini]] and Alessandro Paganini.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.venice.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102232102/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.venice.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World: East Meets West in Venice|archive-date=2 November 2013|website=archive.aramcoworld.com|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="Nuovo">{{cite journal |last1=Nuovo |first1=Angela |title=A Lost Arabic Koran Rediscovered |journal=The Library |date=1990 |volume=s6-12 |issue=4 |pages=273–292 |doi=10.1093/library/s6-12.4.273}}</ref> But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors.<ref name="madainpaganini">{{cite web |title=Paganini Quran |url=https://madainproject.com/paganini_quran |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506131717/https://madainproject.com/paganini_quran |archive-date=6 May 2020 |website=Madain Project |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref> Two more editions include the [[Hinckelmann edition]] published by the pastor [[Abraham Hinckelmann]] in [[Hamburg]] in 1694,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/quran/qurans/printed|title=The Quran in East and West: Manuscripts and Printed Books|website=Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions|language=en-US|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref> and the edition by the Italian priest [[Louis Maracci|Ludovico Maracci]] in [[Padua]] in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/quran/item/6131|title=Alcorani textus universus ex correctioribus Arabum exemplaribus summa fide, atque pulcherrimis characteribus descriptus, vol. 2, p. i|website=Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions|language=en-US|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref>

Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from [[Ulama|Muslim legal scholars]]: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the [[Ottoman empire]] between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death.<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Suraiya Faroqhi |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95 |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |pages=134–36}}</ref><ref name="MatbaaBosworth1989">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=Clifford Edmund |date=1989 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA803 |article=Matba'a |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid |location=Leiden |publisher=E. J. Brill |page=803|isbn=90-04-09239-0 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Watson|1968|p=435}}; {{harvnb|Clogg|1979|p=67}}</ref> The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of [[Ibrahim Muteferrika]], who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.{{Efn|"the major Ottoman printing houses published a combined total of only 142 books in more than a century of printing between 1727 and 1838. When taken in conjunction with the fact that only a minuscule number of copies of each book were printed, this statistic demonstrates that the introduction of the printing press did not transform Ottoman cultural life until the emergence of vibrant print media in the middle of the nineteenth century"<ref>{{Cite book |first=Şükrü |last=Hanioğlu |title=A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2010}}</ref>}}

In 1786, [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in [[Saint Petersburg]], with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in [[Kazan Governorate|Kazan]].{{Efn|"at imperial expense, a 'Tatar and Turkish Typography' was established in St. Petersburg; a domestic scholar, Mullah Osman Ismail, was responsible for the manufacture of the types. One of the first products of this printing house was the Qur'ān. Through the doctor and writer, Johann Georg v. Zimmermann (d. 1795), who was befriended by Catherine II, a copy of the publication arrived in the Göttingen University library. Its director, the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne (d. 1812), presented the work immediately in the ''Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen'' (28 July 1788); therein he pointed especially to the beauty of the Arabic types. To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants. The imprint was reproduced unchanged in 1790 and 1793 in St. Petersburg (cf. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, no. 384); later, after the transfer of the printing house to Kazan, editions appeared in different formats and with varying presentation<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=Dorn |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |article=Chronologisches Verzeichnis, 371 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān |date=2002 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12354-7 |volume=3 |page=251}}</ref>}} The first edition printed in Iran appeared in [[Qajar Iran|Tehran]] (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in [[Constantinople]] between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the [[First Constitutional Era]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History: From the mid-19th century to the present day |last1=Iriye |first1=A. |last2=Saunier |first2=P. |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-349-74030-7 |page=627}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe|last=Kamusella|first=T.|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-0-230-58347-4|pages=265–266}}</ref>

[[Gustav Leberecht Flügel|Gustav Flügel]] published an [[Flügel edition|edition of the Quran]] in 1834 in [[Leipzig]], which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's [[Al-Azhar University]] published an [[1924 Cairo edition|edition of the Quran in 1924]]. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.<ref name="Déroche-2006" />