Editing Pali (section)

==Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms==
Pali and Sanskrit are very closely related and the common characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in India who were familiar with both. A large part of Pali and Sanskrit word-stems are identical in form, differing only in details of inflection.

Technical terms from Sanskrit were converted into Pali by a set of conventional phonological transformations. These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological developments that had occurred in Proto-Pali. Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always possible to tell whether a given Pali word is a part of the old Prakrit lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from Sanskrit. The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pali word is not always secure evidence of the Pali etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit words.{{dubious|date=November 2013}}

The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pali from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pali, with no claim to completeness.

===Vowels and diphthongs===
* Sanskrit '''ai''' and '''au''' always [[monophthongization|monophthongize]] to Pali '''e''' and '''o''', respectively
::Examples: '''maitrī''' (friendliness, benevolence) → '''mettā''', '''auṣadha''' (medical herb) → '''osadha'''
* Sanskrit '''āya''', '''ayā''' and '''avā''' reduce to Pali '''ā'''<ref>Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (2007-07-26). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 172.</ref>
::Examples: '''katipayāha''' (someone) → '''katipāha''', '''vaihāyasa''' (sky-dwelling) → '''vehāsa''', '''yāvagū''' (barley) → '''yāgu'''
* Sanskrit '''aya''' and '''ava''' likewise often reduce to Pali '''e''' and '''o'''
::Examples: '''dhārayati''' (one maintains, one holds) → '''dhāreti''', '''avatāra''' (descent) → '''otāra''', '''bhavati''' (one becomes) → '''hoti'''
* Sanskrit '''avi''' and '''ayū''' becomes Pali '''e''' (i.e. '''avi''' → '''ai''' → '''e''') and '''o'''
::Examples: '''sthavira''' (broad, thick, compact) → '''thera''', '''mayūra''' (peacock) → '''mora'''
* Sanskrit '''ṛ''' appears in Pali as '''a''', '''i''' or '''u''', often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. '''ṛ''' also sometimes becomes '''u''' after labial consonants.
::Examples: '''kṛta''' (done) → '''kata''', '''tṛṣṇa''' (thirst) → '''taṇha''', '''smṛti''' (remembrance, reminiscence) → '''sati''', '''ṛṣi''' (cleric) → '''isi''', '''dṛṣṭi''' (vision, sight) → '''diṭṭhi''', '''ṛddhi''' (growth, increase) → '''iddhi''', '''ṛju''' (straight) → '''uju''', '''spṛṣṭa''' (touched) → '''phuṭṭha''', '''vṛddha''' (old) → '''vuddha'''
* Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants.
::Examples: '''kṣānti''' (patience, forbearance, endurance, indulgence) → '''khanti''', '''rājya''' (kingdom) → '''rajja''', '''īśvara''' (lord) → '''issara''', '''tīrṇa''' (crossed, surpassed) → '''tiṇṇa''', '''pūrva''' (east) → '''pubba'''

===Consonants===

====Sound changes====
* The Sanskrit sibilants '''ś''', '''ṣ''', and '''s''' merge as Pali '''s'''
::Examples: '''śaraṇa''' (protector, defender) → '''saraṇa''', '''doṣa''' (night, darkness) → '''dosa'''
* The Sanskrit stops '''ḍ''' and '''ḍh''' become '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' between vowels (as in Vedic)
::Example: '''cakravāḍa''' (cyclic) → '''cakkavāḷa''', '''virūḍha''' (mounted, sprouted) → '''virūḷha'''

====Assimilations====

=====General rules=====
*Many [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing a large number of [[Gemination|geminate]] (double) consonants. Since [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate '''kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph''' and '''bh''' appear as '''kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph''' and '''bbh''', not as ''khkh, ghgh'' etc.
*Initial consonant clusters are simplified to a single consonant.
::Examples: '''prāṇa''' (respiration) → '''pāṇa''' (not ''ppāṇa''), '''sthavira''' (compact, dense) → '''thera''' (not ''tthera''), '''dhyāna''' (meditation) → '''jhāna''' (not ''jjhāna''), '''jñāti''' (intelligence) → '''ñāti''' (not ''ññāti'')
*When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.
::Examples: '''uttrāsa''' (fear, terror) → '''uttāsa''' (not ''utttāsa''), '''mantra''' (instrument of thought, speech) → '''manta''' (not ''mantta''), '''indra''' (conqueror) → '''inda''' (not ''indda''), '''vandhya''' (barren, fruitless, deprived) → '''vañjha''' (not ''vañjjha'')
*The sequence '''vv''' resulting from assimilation changes to '''bb.'''
::Example: '''sarva''' (all, every, various) → savva → '''sabba''', '''pravrajati''' (one moves forth) → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''divya''' (supernatural, wonderful, magical) → divva → '''dibba''', '''nirvāṇa''' (deceased, extinguished; extinction, cessation, vanishing, disappearance) → nivvāṇa → '''nibbāna'''

=====Total assimilation=====
Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound.

======Regressive assimilations======
* Internal [[visarga]] assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant
::Examples: '''duḥkṛta''' (='''duṣkṛta''', wrong-done) → '''dukkata''', '''duḥkha''' (difficult, unagreeable) → '''dukkha''', '''duḥprajña''' (misknowledge) → '''duppañña''', '''niḥkrodha''' (='''niṣkrodha''', wrath) → '''nikkodha''', '''niḥpakva''' (='''niṣpakva''', well-cooked, decocted, infused) → '''nippakka''', '''niḥśoka''' (ugly, unhappy, inglorious)→ '''nissoka''', '''niḥsattva''' → '''nissatta'''
* In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop
::Examples: '''vimukti''' → '''vimutti''', '''dugdha''' → '''duddha''', '''utpāda''' → '''uppāda''', '''pudgala''' → '''puggala''', '''udghoṣa''' → '''ugghosa''', '''adbhuta''' → '''abbhuta''', '''śabda''' → '''sadda'''
* In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal
::Example: '''unmatta''' → '''ummatta''', '''pradyumna''' → '''pajjunna'''
* '''j''' assimilates to a following '''ñ''' (i.e., '''jñ''' becomes '''ññ''')
::Examples: '''prajñā''' → '''paññā''', '''jñāti''' → '''ñāti'''
* The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v'''
::Examples: '''mārga''' → '''magga''', '''karma''' → '''kamma''', '''varṣa''' → '''vassa''', '''kalpa''' → '''kappa''', '''sarva''' → savva → '''sabba'''
* '''r''' assimilates to a following '''l'''
::Examples: '''durlabha''' → '''dullabha''', '''nirlopa''' → '''nillopa'''
* '''d''' sometimes assimilates to a following '''v''', producing vv → '''bb'''
::Examples: '''udvigna''' → uvvigga → '''ubbigga''', '''dvādaśa''' → '''bārasa''' (beside '''dvādasa''')
* '''t''' and '''d''' may assimilate to a following '''s''' or '''y''' when a morpheme boundary intervenes
::Examples: '''ut+sava''' → '''ussava''', '''ud+yāna''' → '''uyyāna'''

======Progressive assimilations======
* Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs)
::Examples: '''agni''' (fire) → '''aggi''', '''ātman''' (self) → '''atta''', '''prāpnoti''' → '''pappoti''', '''śaknoti''' → '''sakkoti'''
* '''m''' assimilates to an initial sibilant
::Examples: '''smarati''' → '''sarati''', '''smṛti''' → '''sati'''
* Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals
::Examples: '''tīkṣṇa''' → tikṣa → '''tikkha''', '''lakṣmī''' → lakṣī →'''lakkhī'''
* The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v'''
::Examples: '''prāṇa''' → '''pāṇa''', '''grāma''' → '''gāma''', '''śrāvaka''' → '''sāvaka''', '''agra''' → '''agga''', '''indra''' → '''inda''', '''pravrajati''' → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''aśru''' → '''assu'''
* '''y''' assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals
::Examples: '''cyavati''' → '''cavati''', '''jyotiṣ''' → '''joti''', '''rājya''' → '''rajja''', '''matsya''' → macchya → '''maccha''', '''lapsyate''' → lacchyate → '''lacchati''', '''abhyāgata''' → '''abbhāgata''', '''ākhyāti''' → '''akkhāti''', '''saṁkhyā''' → '''saṅkhā''' (but also '''saṅkhyā'''), '''ramya''' → '''ramma'''
* '''y''' assimilates to preceding non-initial '''v''', producing vv → '''bb'''
::Example: '''divya''' → divva → '''dibba''', '''veditavya''' → veditavva → '''veditabba''', '''bhāvya''' → bhavva → '''bhabba'''
* '''y''' and '''v''' assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing '''ss'''
::Examples: '''paśyati''' → '''passati''', '''śyena''' → '''sena''', '''aśva''' → '''assa''', '''īśvara''' → '''issara''', '''kariṣyati''' → '''karissati''', '''tasya''' → '''tassa''', '''svāmin''' → '''sāmī'''
* '''v''' sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop
::Examples: '''pakva''' → '''pakka''', '''catvāri''' → '''cattāri''', '''sattva''' → '''satta''', '''dhvaja''' → '''dhaja'''

=====Partial and mutual assimilation=====
* Sanskrit [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. '''śc''', '''st''', '''ṣṭ''' and '''sp''' become '''cch''', '''tth''', '''ṭṭh''' and '''pph'''
::Examples: '''paścāt''' → '''pacchā''', '''asti''' → '''atthi''', '''stava''' → '''thava''', '''śreṣṭha''' → '''seṭṭha''', '''aṣṭa''' → '''aṭṭha''', '''sparśa''' → '''phassa'''
* In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. '''str''' and '''ṣṭr''' become '''tth''' and '''ṭṭh'''
::Examples: '''śāstra''' → śasta → '''sattha''', '''rāṣṭra''' → raṣṭa → '''raṭṭha'''
* '''t''' and '''p''' become '''c''' before '''s''', and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences '''ts''' and '''ps''' become '''cch''')
::Examples: '''vatsa''' → '''vaccha''', '''apsaras''' → '''accharā'''
* A sibilant assimilates to a preceding '''k''' as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence '''kṣ''' becomes '''kkh''')
::Examples: '''bhikṣu''' → '''bhikkhu''', '''kṣānti''' → '''khanti'''
* Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by '''y''' converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the '''y''' assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. '''ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny''' become '''cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ'''; likewise '''ṇy''' becomes '''ññ'''. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.
::Examples: '''tyajati''' → cyajati → '''cajati''', '''satya''' → sacya → '''sacca''', '''mithyā''' → michyā → '''micchā''', '''vidyā''' → vijyā → '''vijjā''', '''madhya''' → majhya → '''majjha''', '''anya''' → añya → '''añña''', '''puṇya''' → puñya → '''puñña''', '''vandhya''' → vañjhya → vañjjha → '''vañjha'''
* The sequence '''mr''' becomes '''mb''', via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.
::Examples: '''āmra''' → ambra → '''amba''', '''tāmra''' → '''tamba'''

====Epenthesis====
An [[Epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. As with '''ṛ''', the vowel may be '''a''', '''i''', or '''u''', depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. '''i''' is often found near '''i''', '''y''', or palatal consonants; '''u''' is found near '''u''', '''v''', or labial consonants.
* Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by '''a''' or '''u'''
::Example: '''ratna''' → '''ratana''', '''padma''' → '''paduma''' ('''u''' influenced by labial '''m''')
* The sequence '''sn''' may become '''sin''' initially
::Examples: '''snāna''' → '''sināna''', '''sneha''' → '''sineha'''
* '''i''' may be inserted between a consonant and '''l'''
::Examples: '''kleśa''' → '''kilesa''', '''glāna''' → '''gilāna''', '''mlāyati''' → '''milāyati''', '''ślāghati''' → '''silāghati'''
* An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and '''r'''
::Example: '''śrī''' → '''sirī'''
* The sequence '''ry''' generally becomes '''riy''' ('''i''' influenced by following '''y'''), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening
::Example: '''ārya''' → arya → '''ariya''', '''sūrya''' → surya → '''suriya''', '''vīrya''' → virya → '''viriya'''
* '''a''' or '''i''' is inserted between '''r''' and '''h'''
::Example: '''arhati''' → '''arahati''', '''garhā''' → '''garahā''', '''barhiṣ''' → '''barihisa'''
* There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences
::Examples: '''caitya''' → '''cetiya''' (not ''cecca''), '''vajra''' → '''vajira''' (not ''vajja'')

====Other changes====
* Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by '''h''', i.e. '''ṣṇ''', '''sn''' and '''sm''' become '''ṇh''', '''nh''', and '''mh'''
::Examples: '''tṛṣṇa''' → '''taṇha''', '''uṣṇīṣa''' → '''uṇhīsa''', '''asmi''' → '''amhi'''
* The sequence '''śn''' becomes '''ñh''', due to assimilation of the '''n''' to the preceding palatal sibilant
::Example: '''praśna''' → praśña → '''pañha'''
* The sequences '''hy''' and '''hv''' undergo [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]]
::Examples: '''jihvā''' → '''jivhā''', '''gṛhya''' → '''gayha''', '''guhya''' → '''guyha'''
* '''h''' undergoes metathesis with a following nasal
::Example: '''gṛhṇāti''' → '''gaṇhāti'''
* '''y''' is geminated between '''e''' and a vowel
::Examples: '''śreyas''' → '''seyya''', '''Maitreya''' → '''Metteyya'''
* Voiced aspirates such as '''bh''' and '''gh''' on rare occasions become '''h'''
::Examples: '''bhavati''' → '''hoti''', '''-ebhiṣ''' → '''-ehi''', '''laghu''' → '''lahu'''
* Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another
:: Examples: '''jñāna''' → '''ñāṇa''' (not ''ñāna''), '''dahati''' → '''ḍahati''' (beside Pali '''dahati''') '''nīḍa''' → '''nīla''' (not ''nīḷa''), '''sthāna''' → '''ṭhāna''' (not ''thāna''), '''duḥkṛta''' → '''dukkaṭa''' (beside Pali '''dukkata'''), '''granthi'''→ '''gaṇṭhi''', '''pṛthivī → paṭhavī'''/'''puṭhuvī''' (beside Pali '''pathavī'''/'''puthuvī'''/'''puthavī''')

===Exceptions===
There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit.
* '''ārya''' (noble, pure) → '''ayya''' (beside '''ariya''')
* '''guru''' (master) → '''garu''' (adj.) (beside '''guru''' (n.))
* '''puruṣa''' (man) → '''purisa''' (not ''purusa'')
* '''vṛkṣa''' (tree) → rukṣa → '''rukkha''' (not ''vukkha'')