Editing Organ transplantation (section)

=== Financial compensation ===
{{See also|Organ theft|Organ trade|Repugnancy costs}}

Monetary compensation for organ donors, in the form of reimbursement for out-of-pocket expenses, has been legalised in [[Australia]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Plibersek|first=Tanya|date=7 April 2013|title=Supporting Paid Leave for Living Organ Donors|url=https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id:%22media/pressrel/2357133%22|access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref> and strictly only in the case of kidney transplant in the case of [[Singapore]] (minimal reimbursement is offered in the case of other forms of organ harvesting by Singapore). Kidney disease organizations in both countries have expressed their support.<ref name="aus">[https://archive.today/20140721101036/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest-news/living-donors-to-receive-financial-support/story-fn3dxiwe-1226614172117 Live donors to get financial support], Rashida Yosufzai, AAP, 7 April 2013</ref><ref name="bmj">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a2456 | pmid=18996933 | volume=337 | title=Singapore legalises compensation payments to kidney donors | journal=BMJ | pages=a2456 | year=2008 | author=Bland B| s2cid=38062784 }}</ref>

In compensated donation, donors get money or other compensation in exchange for their organs. This practice is common in some parts of the world, whether legal or not, and is one of the many factors driving [[medical tourism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Budiani-Saberi |first1=D.A. |last2=Delmonico |first2=F.L. |title=Organ Trafficking and Transplant Tourism: A Commentary on the Global Realities |journal=American Journal of Transplantation |date=May 2008 |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=925–929 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02200.x |doi-access=free |pmid=18416734 }}</ref>

In the illegal black market the donors may not get sufficient after-operation care,<ref name="wsj">[https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748703481004574646233272990474?mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052748703481004574646233272990474.html#mod=todays_us_weekend_journal The Meat Market] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411041413/http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748703481004574646233272990474?mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052748703481004574646233272990474.html#mod=todays_us_weekend_journal |date=11 April 2014 }}, The Wall Street Journal, 8 January 2010.</ref> the price of a kidney may be above $160,000,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/black-market-kidneys-160000-a-pop/ |title=Black Market Kidneys, $160,000 a Pop |last=Martinez |first=Edecio |date=27 July 2009 |work=CBS News |access-date=12 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423173424/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-5190413-504083.html |archive-date=23 April 2011 }}</ref> middlemen take most of the money, the operation is more dangerous to both the donor and receiver, and the receiver often gets [[hepatitis]] or [[HIV]].<ref name="Economist" /> In legal markets of Iran<ref>{{cite journal | author = Movassagh Hooman | year = 2016 | title = Human Organ Donations Under the 'Iranian Model': A Rewarding Scheme for U.S. Regulatory Reform? | journal = Indiana Health Law Review | volume = 13 | issue = 1| pages = 82–118 | doi = 10.18060/3911.0013 | doi-access = free }}</ref> the price of a kidney is $2,000 to $4,000.<ref name="Economist">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.economist.com/node/8173039?story_id=8173039|title=Psst, wanna buy a kidney?|date=16 November 2006|magazine=Organ transplants|publisher=The Economist Newspaper Limited 2011|access-date=12 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Tober2007">{{cite journal |last1=Tober |first1=Diane M. |title=Kidneys and Controversies in the Islamic Republic of Iran: The Case of Organ Sale |journal=Body & Society |date=September 2007 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=151–170 |doi=10.1177/1357034x07082257 |s2cid=146238746 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aakp.org/aakp-library/Compensated-Donations/|title=A New Outlook on Compensated Kidney Donations|last=Schall|first=John A.|date=May 2008|work=RENALIFE|publisher=American Association of Kidney Patients|access-date=14 June 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221324/http://www.aakp.org/aakp-library/Compensated-Donations/|archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref>

An article by [[Gary Becker]] and Julio Elias on "Introducing Incentives in the market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations"<ref>{{cite news |url=http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/blogs/freakonomics/pdf/BeckerEliasOrgans(5-06).pdf |newspaper=The New York Times|title=Introducing Incentives in the Market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations |author1=Gary S. Becker |author2=Julio Jorge Elías |access-date=24 December 2013}}</ref> said that a [[free market]] could help solve the problem of a scarcity in organ transplants. Their economic modeling was able to estimate the price tag for human kidneys ($15,000) and human livers ($32,000).

In the United States, [[The National Organ Transplant Act of 1984]] made organ sales illegal. In the United Kingdom, the [[Human Organ Transplants Act 1989]] first made organ sales illegal, and has been superseded by the [[Human Tissue Act 2004]].  In 2007, two major European conferences recommended against the sale of organs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2164177/nav/tap1/ |title=Shopped Liver: The worldwide market in human organs |author=William Saletan |author-link=William Saletan |work=Salon |date=14 April 2007 |access-date=24 December 2013 |archive-date=7 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707210309/http://www.slate.com/id/2164177/nav/tap1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Recent development of websites and personal advertisements for organs among listed candidates has raised the stakes when it comes to the selling of organs, and have also sparked significant ethical debates over directed donation, "good-Samaritan" donation, and the current US organ allocation policy. Bioethicist Jacob M. Appel has argued that organ solicitation on billboards and the internet may actually increase the overall supply of organs.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/hcr.2005.0052 |vauthors=Appel JM, Fox MD |title=Organ solicitation on the Internet: every man for himself? |journal=Hastings Cent Rep |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=14; discussion 14–15 |year=2005 |pmid=16092393|s2cid=144121833 }}</ref>

In an experimental survey, Elias, Lacetera and Macis (2019) find that preferences for compensation for kidney donors have strong moral foundations; participants in the experiment especially reject direct payments by patients, which they find would violate principles of fairness.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elías |first1=Julio J. |last2=Lacetera |first2=Nicola |last3=Macis |first3=Mario |title=Paying for Kidneys? A Randomized Survey and Choice Experiment |journal=American Economic Review |date=August 2019 |volume=109 |issue=8 |pages=2855–2888 |doi=10.1257/aer.20180568 }}</ref>

Many countries have different approaches to organ donation such as the opt-out approach and many advertisements of organ donors, encouraging people to donate. Although these laws have been implemented in a certain country they are not forced upon everyone as it is an individual decision.

Two books, ''Kidney for Sale By Owner'' by Mark Cherry (Georgetown University Press, 2005) and ''Stakes and Kidneys: Why Markets in Human Body Parts are Morally Imperative'' by James Stacey Taylor:
(Ashgate Press, 2005), advocate using markets to increase the supply of organs available for transplantation.
In a 2004 journal article economist Alex Tabarrok argues that allowing organ sales, and elimination of organ donor lists will increase supply, lower costs and diminish social anxiety towards organ markets.<ref name="econjournalwatch.org">{{cite journal |url=http://www.econjournalwatch.org/pdf/Tabarrok%20Comment%20April%202004.pdf |journal=Econ Journal Watch|title=How to Get Real About Organs |author=Alexander Tabarrok |publisher=Fraser Institute |date=April 2004 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=11–18 |access-date=24 December 2013 }}</ref>

Iran has had a legal market for kidneys since 1988.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghods AJ, Savaj S |title=Iranian model of paid and regulated living-unrelated kidney donation |journal=Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=1136–45 |date=November 2006 |pmid=17699338 |doi=10.2215/CJN.00700206|doi-access=free }}</ref> The donor is paid approximately US$1200 by the government and also usually receives additional funds from either the recipient or local charities.<ref name="Tober2007" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Griffin A |title=Kidneys on demand |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=334 |issue=7592 |pages=502–05 |date=March 2007 |pmid=17347232 |pmc=1819484 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39141.493148.94}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]''<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8173039 |title=Organ transplants: Psst, wanna buy a kidney? |newspaper=The Economist |date=16 November 2006 |access-date=17 April 2013}}</ref> and the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?JServSessionIdr012=e38noczlb2.app7a&page=NewsArticle&id=11517&news_iv_ctrl=1085 |title=To Save Lives, Legalize Trade in Organs |publisher=The Ayn Rand Center for Individual Rights |work=Aynrand.org |author=David Holcberg |year=2005 |access-date=1 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019212327/http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?JServSessionIdr012=e38noczlb2.app7a&page=NewsArticle&id=11517&news_iv_ctrl=1085 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> approve and advocate a legal market elsewhere. They argued that if 0.06% of Americans between 19 and 65 were to sell one kidney, the national waiting list would disappear (which, the Economist wrote, happened in Iran). The Economist argued that donating kidneys is no more risky than [[Surrogacy|surrogate motherhood]], which can be done legally for pay in most countries.

In Pakistan, 40 percent to 50 percent of the residents of some villages have only one kidney because they have sold the other for a transplant into a wealthy person, probably from another country, said Dr. Farhat Moazam of Pakistan, at a [[World Health Organization]] conference. Pakistani donors are offered $2,500 for a kidney but receive only about half of that because middlemen take so much.<!--ORIGINAL DEAD REFERENCE; COULD NOT FIND; USING ALTERNATE RE-PUBLISHER INSTEAD: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071008202945/http://www.wtopnews.com/?nid=106&sid=110286] WHO Says Organ Demand Outstrips Supply, Alexander G. Higgins, Associated Press, March 30, 2007{{dead-link|date=December 2013}}--><ref>{{cite news |title=WHO says organ demand outstrips supply |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2007-03-30-1689076706_x.htm |access-date=25 December 2013 |newspaper=USA Today |date=30 March 2007 |author=Alexander G. Higgins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225031445/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2007-03-30-1689076706_x.htm |archive-date=25 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In Chennai, southern India, poor fishermen and their families sold kidneys after their livelihoods were destroyed by the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004. About 100 people, mostly women, sold their kidneys for 40,000–60,000 rupees ($900–1,350).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSDEL21432720070116 |title=Indian police probe kidney sales by tsunami victims |author=R. Bhagwan Singh |work=Reuters |date=16 January 2007 |access-date=9 August 2008}}</ref> Thilakavathy Agatheesh, 30, who sold a kidney in May 2005 for 40,000 rupees said, "I used to earn some money selling fish but now the post-surgery stomach cramps prevent me from going to work." Most kidney sellers say that selling their kidney was a mistake.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1001/jama.288.13.1640 |author=Rothman DJ |title=Ethical and social consequences of selling a kidney |journal=[[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] |volume=288 |issue=13 |pages=1640–41 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12350195 }}</ref>

In Cyprus in 2010, police closed a fertility clinic under charges of trafficking in human eggs. The Petra Clinic, as it was known locally, brought in women from Ukraine and Russia for egg harvesting and sold the genetic material to foreign fertility tourists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/importing-egg-donors-ukraine-cyprus |title=Cyprus Clinic Accused of Human Egg Harvesting |publisher=Pulitzer Center |date=2010-08-17 |access-date=25 December 2013 |archive-date=26 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226022756/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/importing-egg-donors-ukraine-cyprus |url-status=dead }}</ref> This sort of reproductive trafficking violates laws in the European Union. In 2010, [[Scott Carney]] reported for the [[Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting]] and the magazine [[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company]] explored illicit fertility networks in Spain, the United States and Israel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Untold Stories: The Cyprus Scramble |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/cyprus-scramble-investigation-human-egg-markets |date=17 August 2010 |author=Scott Carney |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-date=18 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818234708/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/cyprus-scramble-investigation-human-egg-markets |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/148/eggs-for-sale.html |title=Unpacking the Global Human Egg Trade &#124; Human Eggs for Sale |author=Carney, Scott |magazine=Fast Company |date=1 September 2010 |access-date=25 December 2013}}</ref>