Editing Negotiation (section)

=== Negative affect ===
[[Negative affect]] has detrimental effects on various stages in the negotiation process. Although various negative emotions affect negotiation outcomes, by far the most researched is [[anger]]. Angry negotiators plan to use more competitive strategies and cooperate less, even before the negotiation starts.<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> These competitive strategies are related to reduced joint outcomes.
During negotiations, anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust, clouding parties' judgment, narrowing parties' focus of attention, and changing their central goal from reaching an agreement to retaliating against the other side.<ref name="Maiese"/> Angry negotiators pay less attention to the opponent's interests and are less accurate in judging their interests, thus achieving lower joint gains.<ref name="Allred 1997">{{cite journal | last1 = Allred | first1 = K. G. | last2 = Mallozzi | first2 = J. S. | last3 = Matsui | first3 = F. | last4 = Raia | first4 = C. P. | year = 1997 | title = The influence of anger and compassion on negotiation performance | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 175–187 | doi=10.1006/obhd.1997.2705| doi-access = free }}</ref> Moreover, because anger makes negotiators more self-centered in their preferences, it increases the likelihood that they will reject profitable offers.<ref name="Maiese"/> Opponents who get angry (or cry, or otherwise lose control) are more likely to make errors.<ref name="Churchman 1993"/>
Anger does not help achieve negotiation goals either: it reduces joint gains<ref name="Forgas 1998"/> and does not boost personal gains, as angry negotiators do not succeed.<ref name="Allred 1997"/> Moreover, negative emotions lead to acceptance of settlements that are not in a positive [[Consumption set|utility function]] but rather have a negative [[utility]].<ref name="Davidson 1999">{{cite journal | last1 = Davidson | first1 = M. N. | last2 = Greenhalgh | first2 = L. | year = 1999 | title = The role of emotion in negotiation: The impact of anger and race | journal = Research on Negotiation in Organizations | volume = 7 | pages = 3–26 }}</ref> However, the expression of negative emotions during negotiation can sometimes be beneficial: legitimately expressed anger can be an effective way to show one's commitment, sincerity, and needs.<ref name="Maiese"/> Moreover, although NA reduces gains in integrative tasks, it is a better strategy than PA in distributive tasks (such as [[zero-sum]]).<ref name="Barry 2004"/> In his work on negative affect arousal and white noise, Seidner found support for the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other ethnic origins. Negotiation may be negatively affected, in turn, by submerged hostility toward an ethnic or gender group.<ref name=Seid1991>{{cite book | last = Seidner | first = Stanley S. | date = 1991 | title =Negative Affect Arousal Reactions from Mexican and Puerto Rican Respondents | location= Washington, D.C.| publisher = ERIC| url= http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED346711&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED346711}}</ref>