Editing Meat (section)

== Health effects ==

{{Further|Red meat#Health effects}}

Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks.<ref name="who"/><ref name="Staph"/> The ''2015–2020 [[Dietary Guidelines for Americans]]'' asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines |url=https://health.gov/our-work/nutrition-physical-activity/dietary-guidelines/previous-dietary-guidelines/2015 |access-date=December 30, 2022 |website=health.gov}}</ref>

=== Contamination ===

Toxic compounds including [[heavy metals]], [[mycotoxin]]s, [[pesticide]] residues, [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxins]], [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain [[carcinogen]]s such as [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]].<ref name=PAHs/> Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer.<ref name="Püssa">{{Cite journal |last=Püssa |first=Tõnu |date=December 1, 2013 |title=Toxicological issues associated with production and processing of meat |journal=Meat Science |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.04.032 |pmid=23660174}}</ref>

=== Cancer ===

{{main|Red meat#Cancer}}

The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC), a specialized agency of the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."<ref name="who">{{cite web |title=Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=https://www.who.int/features/qa/cancer-red-meat/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=August 7, 2019 |date=October 1, 2015}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230323222509/https://www3.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11394:iarc-evaluates-consumption-of-red-meat-and-processed-meat&Itemid=0&lang=en "IARC evaluates consumption of red meat and processed meat"]. paho.org. Retrieved March 22, 2023.</ref> IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."<ref name="WHO-20151026">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=World Health Organization – IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |work=[[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] |access-date=October 26, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026144543/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |archive-date=October 26, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><!--<ref name="NYT-20151026">{{cite news |last=Hauser |first=Christine |title=W.H.O. Report Links Some Cancers With Processed or Red Meat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/27/health/report-links-some-types-of-cancer-with-processed-or-red-meat.html |date=October 26, 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 26, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026173834/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/27/health/report-links-some-types-of-cancer-with-processed-or-red-meat.html |archive-date=October 26, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BBC-20151026">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Processed meats do cause cancer – WHO |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-34615621 |date=October 26, 2015 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=October 26, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026101723/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-34615621 |archive-date=October 26, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>-->

[[Cancer Research UK]], [[National Health Service]] (NHS) and the [[National Cancer Institute]] have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of [[bowel cancer]].<ref>[https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/food-guidelines-and-food-labels/red-meat-and-the-risk-of-bowel-cancer/ "Red meat and the risk of bowel cancer"]. nhs.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.</ref><ref>[https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/does-eating-processed-and-red-meat-cause-cancer "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?"]. cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved March 22, 2023.</ref><ref>[https://progressreport.cancer.gov/prevention/red_meat "Red Meat and Processed Meat Consumption"]. progressreport.cancer.gov. Retrieved March 22, 2023.</ref> The [[American Cancer Society]] in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."<ref>{{cite journal |title=American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention |journal=CA |date=2020 |doi=10.3322/caac.21591 |last1=Rock |first1=Cheryl L. |last2=Thomson |first2=Cynthia |last3=Gansler |first3=Ted |last4=Gapstur |first4=Susan M. |last5=McCullough |first5=Marjorie L. |last6=Patel |first6=Alpa V. |last7=Andrews |first7=Kimberly S. |last8=Bandera |first8=Elisa V. |last9=Spees |first9=Colleen K. |last10=Robien |first10=Kimberly |last11=Hartman |first11=Sheri |last12=Sullivan |first12=Kristen |last13=Grant |first13=Barbara L. |last14=Hamilton |first14=Kathryn K. |last15=Kushi |first15=Lawrence H. |last16=Caan |first16=Bette J. |last17=Kibbe |first17=Debra |last18=Black |first18=Jessica Donze |last19=Wiedt |first19=Tracy L. |last20=McMahon |first20=Catherine |last21=Sloan |first21=Kirsten |last22=Doyle |first22=Colleen |display-authors=6 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=245–271 |pmid=32515498 |s2cid=219550658|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Canadian Cancer Society]] have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk".<ref>[https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/reduce-your-risk/eat-well/limit-red-and-processed-meat "Limit red and processed meat"]. cancer.ca. Retrieved April 10, 2023.</ref>

A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q |title=Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review |journal=Food Chem |volume=356 |pages=129697 |date=September 2021 |pmid=33838606 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697 |type=Review}}</ref>

Cooking muscle meat creates [[heterocyclic amine]]s (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=National Cancer Institute – Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=Cancer.gov |date=September 15, 2004 |access-date=May 1, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221034421/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |archive-date=December 21, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the [[National Cancer Institute]] states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F|C|order=flip}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. [[Microwaving]] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats – National Cancer Institute |publisher=Cancer.gov |date=September 15, 2004 |access-date=May 1, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221034421/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |archive-date=December 21, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Nitrosamine]]s, present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic.<ref name="PAHs">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf |title=PAH-Occurrence in Foods, Dietary Exposure and Health Effects |access-date=May 1, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519225348/http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf |archive-date=May 19, 2011 }}</ref>

=== Bacterial contamination ===

Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the [[Translational Genomics Research Institute]] showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with ''[[Staphylococcus aureus|S. aureus]]'', with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics.<ref name="Staph">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110415083153.htm|title=US Meat and Poultry Is Widely Contaminated With Drug-Resistant Staph Bacteria|work=sciencedaily.com|access-date=March 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707081303/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110415083153.htm|archive-date=July 7, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> A 2018 investigation by the [[Bureau of Investigative Journalism]] and ''[[The Guardian]]'' found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus".<ref>{{cite news |last=Wasley |first=Andrew |date=February 21, 2018 |title='Dirty meat': Shocking hygiene failings discovered in US pig and chicken plants |url=https://www.theguardian.com/animals-farmed/2018/feb/21/dirty-meat-shocking-hygiene-failings-discovered-in-us-pig-and-chicken-plants |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=February 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223222127/https://www.theguardian.com/animals-farmed/2018/feb/21/dirty-meat-shocking-hygiene-failings-discovered-in-us-pig-and-chicken-plants |archive-date=February 23, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Complete cooking and the careful avoidance of recontamination reduce the risk of bacterial infections from meat.<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=2518970 |title=Colonic protein fermentation and promotion of colon carcinogenesis by thermolyzed casein |last1=Corpet |first1=Denis |last2=Yin |first2=Y. |last3=Zhang |first3=X. |last4=Rémésy |first4=C. |last5=Stamp |first5=D. |last6=Medline |first6=A. |last7=Thompson |first7=L. |last8=Bruce |first8=W. |last9=Archer |first9=M. |display-authors=6 |year=1995 |pmid=7603887 |doi=10.1080/01635589509514381 |volume=23 |issue=3 |journal=Nutr Cancer |pages=271–281}}</ref>

=== Diabetes ===

Consumption of 100 g/day of red meat and 50 g/day of processed meat is associated with an increased risk of [[diabetes]].<ref name="Giosuè Calabrese Riccardi Vaccaro 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Giosuè |first1=Annalisa |last2=Calabrese |first2=Ilaria |last3=Riccardi |first3=Gabriele |last4=Vaccaro |first4=Olga |last5=Vitale |first5=Marilena |title=Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies |journal=Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice |volume=191 |date=2022 |doi=10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071 |page=110071|pmid=36067917 }}</ref>

[[Diabetes UK]] advises people to limit their intake of red and processed meat.<ref>[https://www.diabetes.org.uk/guide-to-diabetes/enjoy-food/eating-with-diabetes/what-is-a-healthy-balanced-diet/processed-and-red-meat "Red alert: processed and red meat"]. diabetes.org.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.</ref><ref>[https://www.diabetes.org.uk/guide-to-diabetes/enjoy-food/eating-with-diabetes/what-is-a-healthy-balanced-diet/processed-and-red-meat "What is a Healthy, Balanced Diet for Diabetes?"]. diabetes.org.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.</ref>

=== Infectious diseases ===

Meat production and trade substantially increase risks for infectious diseases ([[zoonosis]]), including [[pandemic prevention|of pandemics]], whether though contact with wild and farmed animals, or via husbandry's environmental impact.<ref name="10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341">{{cite journal |last1=González |first1=Neus |last2=Marquès |first2=Montse |last3=Nadal |first3=Martí |last4=Domingo |first4=José L. |title=Meat consumption: Which are the current global risks? A review of recent (2010–2020) evidences |journal=Food Research International |date=November 1, 2020 |volume=137 |pages=109341 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341 |pmid=33233049 |pmc=7256495 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greger |first1=Michael |title=Primary Pandemic Prevention |journal=American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine |date=September 2021 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=498–505 |doi=10.1177/15598276211008134 |pmid=34646097 |pmc=8504329}}</ref> For example, [[avian influenza]] from poultry meat production is a threat to human health.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sutton |first1=Troy C. |title=The Pandemic Threat of Emerging H5 and H7 Avian Influenza Viruses |journal=Viruses |date=September 2018 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=461 |doi=10.3390/v10090461 |pmid=30154345 |pmc=6164301 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, the use of antibiotics in meat production contributes to [[antimicrobial resistance]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monger |first1=Xavier C. |last2=Gilbert |first2=Alex-An |last3=Saucier |first3=Linda |last4=Vincent |first4=Antony T. |title=Antibiotic Resistance: From Pig to Meat |journal=Antibiotics |date=October 2021 |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=1209 |doi=10.3390/antibiotics10101209 |pmid=34680790 |pmc=8532907 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clifford |first1=Katie |last2=Desai |first2=Darash |last3=Prazeres da Costa |first3=Clarissa |last4=Meyer |first4=Hannelore |last5=Klohe |first5=Katharina |last6=Winkler |first6=Andrea |last7=Rahman |first7=Tanvir |last8=Islam |first8=Taohidul |last9=Zaman |first9=Muhammad H |title=Antimicrobial resistance in livestock and poor quality veterinary medicines |journal=[[Bulletin of the World Health Organization]] |date=September 1, 2018 |volume=96 |issue=9 |pages=662–664 |doi=10.2471/BLT.18.209585 |pmid=30262949 |pmc=6154060 }}</ref> – which contributes to millions of deaths<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=Christopher JL |last2=Ikuta |first2=Kevin Shunji |last3=Sharara |first3=Fablina |last4=Swetschinski |first4=Lucien |last5=Aguilar |first5=Gisela Robles |last6=Gray |first6=Authia |last7=Han |first7=Chieh |last8=Bisignano |first8=Catherine |last9=Rao |first9=Puja |last10=Wool |first10=Eve |last11=Johnson |first11=Sarah C. |display-authors=6 |date=January 19, 2022 |title=Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis |journal=[[The Lancet]] |volume=399 |issue=10325 |pages=629–655 glish |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0 |pmid=35065702 |pmc=8841637 |s2cid=246077406}}</ref> – and makes it harder to control infectious diseases.<!--<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greger |first1=Michael |date=September 2021 |title=Primary Pandemic Prevention |journal=American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=498–505 |doi=10.1177/15598276211008134 |pmc=8504329 |pmid=34646097 |s2cid=235503730}}</ref>--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Polly |last2=Rhubart-Berg |first2=Pamela |last3=McKenzie |first3=Shawn |last4=Kelling |first4=Kristin |last5=Lawrence |first5=Robert S. |date=June 2005 |title=Public health implications of meat production and consumption |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=348–356 |doi=10.1079/PHN2005727 |pmid=15975179 |s2cid=59196 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hafez |first1=Hafez M. |last2=Attia |first2=Youssef A. |date=2020 |title=Challenges to the Poultry Industry: Current Perspectives and Strategic Future After the COVID-19 Outbreak |journal=[[Frontiers in Veterinary Science]] |volume=7 |page=516 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00516 |pmc=7479178 |pmid=33005639 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehdi |first1=Youcef |last2=Létourneau-Montminy |first2=Marie-Pierre |last3=Gaucher |first3=Marie-Lou |last4=Chorfi |first4=Younes |last5=Suresh |first5=Gayatri |last6=Rouissi |first6=Tarek |last7=Brar |first7=Satinder Kaur |last8=Côté |first8=Caroline |last9=Ramirez |first9=Antonio Avalos |last10=Godbout |first10=Stéphane |display-authors=6 |date=June 1, 2018 |title=Use of antibiotics in broiler production: Global impacts and alternatives |journal=Animal Nutrition |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=170–178 |doi=10.1016/j.aninu.2018.03.002 |pmc=6103476 |pmid=30140756}}</ref>

=== Changes in consumer behavior ===

In response to changing [[meat price]]s as well as health concerns about [[lipid hypothesis|saturated fat and cholesterol]], consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. Consumption of beef in the United States between 1970 and 1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of [[Chicken (food)|chicken]] increased by 90%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/foodreview/jan1996/frjan96f.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=August 17, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060304100230/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/foodreview/jan1996/frjan96f.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2006 }}</ref>

=== Heart disease ===

[[File:Relative risk and 95% confidence intervals of ischemic heart disease for each 50 g per day increase in processed meat consumption.jpg|thumb|Risk of ischemic heart disease for each 50&nbsp;g per day increase in processed meat consumption<ref name="10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575">{{cite journal |last1=Papier |first1=Keren |last2=Knuppel |first2=Anika |last3=Syam |first3=Nandana |last4=Jebb |first4=Susan A. |last5=Key |first5=Tim J. |date=July 20, 2021 |title=Meat consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:5d4dd1d6-4f33-4edc-9ae0-58c332d10c4f |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=426–437 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575 |pmid=34284672 |s2cid=236158918}}</ref>]]

Except for poultry, at 50 g/day unprocessed red and processed meat are risk factors for ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk by about 9 and 18% respectively.<ref name="10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=X. |display-authors=etal |year=2022 |title=Red/processed meat consumption and non-cancer-related outcomes in humans: umbrella review |journal=British Journal of Nutrition|volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=484–494 |doi=10.1017/S0007114522003415 |pmid=36545687 |s2cid=255021441 }}</ref>