Editing Jansenism (section)

==Jansenism outside France==
The problem of grace concerned all [[Roman Catholic]] countries in the 17th century, and Jansenism, born outside of the Kingdom of France, did not remain confined to France. However, during the early period of Jansenism, that is the 17th century, most of the history of Jansenism took place within the kingdom. It was with the bull ''[[Unigenitus]]'' that Jansenism truly expanded outside of France.

=== The Spanish Netherlands—Leuven ===
As noted by [[Jonathan Israel]]<ref name="Israel-1995">{{Cite book |last=Israel |first=Jonathan |title=The Dutch Republic |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1995 |isbn=0198730721 |location=Oxford}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=649–653}} Jansenism initially had strong support in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], where Jansen himself had been active, supported by such major figures of the church hierarchy as [[Jacobus Boon]], [[archbishop of Mechelen]] and [[Antonie Triest]], [[bishop of Ghent]]. Though the Church in the Spanish Netherlands eventually took up the persecution of Jansenism, with Jansenist clergy being replaced by their opponents and the monument to Jansen in the [[St Martin's Cathedral, Ypres|Cathedral of Ypres]] being symbolically demolished in 1656. Nevertheless the Spanish authorities were less zealous in this persecution than the French.

[[File:Cornelius Jansen.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Cornelius Jansen]] (1585–1638). Jansen's alma mater, the [[Old University of Leuven|(Old) University of Leuven]], became a major centre of Jansenist theology.]]

The [[Old University of Leuven|(Old) University of Leuven]], which published [[Augustinus (Jansenist book)|''Augustinus'']], remained Augustinian in orientation since the time of Jansen. The popes were less demanding to the university, undoubtedly because they did not have a close political relationship with it as they did with [[Louis XIV]] in France. In 1677, a Baianist faction from the theological faculty submitted 116 propositions of moral laxity for censure to [[Pope Innocent XI]]. They were textually drawn from the letter of accusation of the professors of Leuven, and thus the Roman authorities suppressed dissertations dealing with the question of the true origin of the propositions, which was regarded as ambiguous.<ref name="von Pastor-1940">{{Cite book |last=von Pastor |first=Ludwig |title=The History of the Popes |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., LTD. |year=1940 |volume=XXXII |location=London |pages=432 |translator-last=Graf |translator-first=Ernest}}</ref> Innocent XI selected 65 propositions from the submission and "limited himself to condemning the deviations of moral doctrine",<ref name="DH2012" />{{rp|at=p. 466}} avoiding a revival of the controversy on grace.<ref name="von Pastor-1940" /> The 65 propositions were described as "at the very least scandalous and pernicious in practice", leading the Pope to censure them through a decree of the [[Inquisition]] in March 1679,<ref name="von Pastor-1940" /><ref name="DH2012" />{{rp|at=nn. 2101–2167}} yet "without naming the [[Catholic probabilism|probabilism]] prevalent in Jesuit circles."<ref name="KellyWalsh2010">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2010 |title=Innocent XI, Bl |encyclopedia=A dictionary of popes |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [u.a.] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVmcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA290 |edition=2nd |series=Oxford paperback reference |pages=290–291 |isbn=9780199295814 |author-last2=Walsh |author-first2=Michael J. |author-last1=Kelly |author-first1=John N. D.}}</ref> The Holy Office previously censured 45 propositions of moral doctrine between two decrees dated to 24 September 1665, and 18 March 1666. According to [[Heinrich Joseph Dominicus Denzinger|Denzinger]], the propositions submitted, by both the University of Leuven and the [[University of Paris]], were "frequently taken out of context and sometimes expanded by elements that are not found in the original, so that most often one must speak of fictitious authors."

Until the 1690s, it was possible to sign [[Regiminis Apostolici|Formula of Pope Alexander VII]] without specifying one's interpretation of it regarding matters ''de jure'' and ''de facto''. Twice the archbishop of [[Mechelen]], [[Humbertus Guilielmus de Precipiano]], tried to toughen the signing conditions, but he lost a lawsuit against the university. It was not until 1710 that the absolute and unqualified signing of the Formula was made compulsory.

''Unigenitus'' was accepted without question from 1715, but the letters ''Pastoralis officii'' of [[Pope Clement XI]] provoked fierce conflict between the archbishop of Mechelen and the university. After legal proceedings, episodes of refusal of the sacraments similar to what occurred in France in the 1740s and an exile of professors to the [[Dutch Republic]], the university appeared to submit to the bull and its papal interpretation in 1730.<ref name="Gazier-1924" />{{Rp|pages=26–29}}

The University of Leuven was, due to its alumni [[Michael Baius|Baius]] and Jansen, the cradle of Jansenism and remained, during the 17th and 18th centuries until its suppression, the bastion<ref>{{Cite book |last=Levillain |first=Philippe |title=Dictionnaire historique de la Papauté |date=1994 |publisher=Fayard |pages=Innocent XII Pignatelli 1691–1700 |language=fr |trans-title=Historical dictionary of the Papacy}}</ref> and the hub<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tollet1 Chaunu2 |first=Daniel1 Pierre2 |title=Le jansénisme et la franc-maçonnerie en Europe centrale aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles |pages=143 |language=fr |trans-title=Jansenism and Freemasonry in Central Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries}}</ref> of Jansenist Augustinian theology<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Lorme |first=J. Louis |title=Histoire genérale du Jansénisme, Tome III |date=1700 |location=Amsterdam |pages=343–344 |language=fr |trans-title=General history of Jansenism, vol. 3}}</ref> in Europe, with professors such as Jansen, [[Petrus Stockmans]], [[Johannes van Neercassel]], [[Josse Le Plat]] and especially the famous [[Zeger Bernhard van Espen]] and his students [[Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim]] or [[Charles Joseph Mathieu Lambrechts]], professor of canon law, rector of the university in 1786, [[Freemasonry|Freemason]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Duchaine |first=Paul |title=La franc-maçonnerie belge au XVIIIe siècle |date=1911 |location=Brussels |pages=103 |language=fr |trans-title=Belgian freemasonry in the 18th century}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cordier |first=Adolphe |title=Histoire de l'ordre maçonnique en Belgique |date=1854 |location=Mons |pages=337 |language=fr |trans-title=History of the Masonic Order in Belgium}}</ref> and Minister of Justice in the [[French Directory]] under [[Napoleon]]. As Henri Francotte says, "Jansenism reigned supreme at the University of Leuven".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Francotte |first=Henri |title=La Propagande des encyclopédistes français au pays de Liège (1750-1790) |date=1880 |publisher=Hayez |pages=28 |language=fr |trans-title=The Propaganda of French Encyclopaedists in the country of Liège (1750-1790)}}</ref>

As late as 1818, Charles Lambrechts, former rector of the university, ex-senator and minister of Napoleon, recalled the 'vexations' of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] against his predecessor van Espen.<blockquote>The encroachments of the Catholic clergy and their pretentions were so vexatious, that, in a time when their religion was dominant, no other remedy had been found for their abuse of power, other than the appeals in question. This is what prompted the famous van Espen to write, at the age of eighty, his treatise ''De recursu ad Principem'', in order to put a barrier up against the ever-resurgent abuses of clerical jurisdictions; but this virtuous clergyman, who distributed to the poor all the income from the chair of canon law which he occupied at the University of Leuven, was soon obliged to resort to [[Appeal as from an abuse|appeal for himself as from an abuse]]; still, this remedy could not entirely save him from persecution by intolerant priests. Burdened with years, glory and infirmities, he was forced to seek in Holland shelter from their vexations; he soon died in Amsterdam amid feelings of piety and resignation, after having spent his life defending the discipline and customs of the Early Church, of which he was the most zealous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lambrechts |first=Charles |title=Quelques réflexions à l'occasion du livre de M. l'abbé Frayssinous, intitulé Des vrais principes de l'Église gallicane |date=1818 |publisher=A. Eymery et Delaunay |location=Paris |language=fr |trans-title=Some reflections on the occasion of the book by Father Frayssinous, entitled 'True Principles of the Gallican Church'}}</ref></blockquote>

=== In the Dutch Republic ===
{{further|Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands#Reformation and Jansenism|Holland Mission}}

The [[Dutch Republic]] was the place of exile for many French Jansenists. They gathered first in Amsterdam, then increasingly in [[Utrecht]]. Since the 16th century, this small town had been the seat of the [[Dutch Mission]] aimed at the conversion of the Dutch who had become largely [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]]. Jansenist refugees from France and the Spanish Netherlands were made welcome, increasing the Jansenist influence among Dutch Roman Catholics. As a result, the Dutch Mission gained a strong Jansenist element in both theology and morality.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=650}} Politically, the Dutch Jansenists were more inclined than other Roman Catholics to reach accommodation with the Protestant authorities and sought to make themselves independent of papal control.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=|pages=649, 652}} Moreover, theologically the Jansenist doctrines were considered to be closer to the dominant Dutch [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed Protestantism]]. Dutch Jansenism (sometimes called 'Quesnelism' after [[Pasquier Quesnel]]) was accused by its opponents of being 'crypto-Calvinism within the Church'.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=653|pages=}} The controversy between Jansenists and anti-Jansenists (the latter naturally led by the Jesuits) increasingly tore up the Dutch Roman Catholic Church in the late 17th and early 18th century, with the authorities of the Dutch Republic actively involved on the one side and the papacy and kings of France, Spain, Portugal, and Poland on the other. Moreover, some Dutch Roman Catholics seeking greater independence from papal control were identified as being 'Jansenists', even if not necessarily adhering to the theological doctrines of Jansenism.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=1034|pages=}}[[File:Sint-Gertrudiskathedraal.JPG|left|thumb|[[St. Gertrude's Cathedral]], seat of the [[Archbishop of Utrecht]] and mother church of the [[Old Catholic Church]], a small denomination of [[Christianity]] that remains in existence today, and which was influenced by Jansenism in its founding]]
The opposition towards the Jesuits and Roman Catholic clergy in general in the Republic of the 1680s prompted a more 'national attitude' among Dutch Roman Catholics, who began to stray from papal authority and adjust to their environment within their local hierarchies.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=649}} The minority status of Roman Catholicism paradoxically allowed greater freedom for the local churches, which elected its bishop and had him confirmed by the pope, even if he only bore the title of 'vicar apostolic' so as not to irritate the government. Relations between Utrecht and French Jansenism had developed early on, since vicar apostolic [[Johannes van Neercassel]], friend of Antoine Arnauld and Pasquier Quesnel,<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=|pages=651–652}} and in 1673 published an 'uncompromisingly Jansenist work', ''Amor Poenitens'', which was frequently criticised by the Jesuits.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=652|pages=}} His successor, [[Petrus Codde]], who was influenced by Arnauld and Quesnel, and did much to promote Jansenism in the Dutch Mission including harbouring French Jansenist refugees, was suspended by Clement XI in 1702, despite his popularity with the local population.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=1034|pages=}} He appointed a successor who was unpopular with the local Roman Catholics. In August 1702, the [[States of Holland and West Friesland|States of Holland]] forbade Dutch Roman Catholics from recognising a vicar general who was not approved by its representatives. This meant that Dutch Roman Catholics were split between submitting to the authority of the Pope at the expense of the States or vice versa.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=1035|pages=}}

In April 1723, tensions culminated when the 'refractory' clergy appointed [[Cornelius van Steenoven]] as 'Archbishop of Utrecht', who the majority of the Roman Catholic laity supported, in opposition to papal authority, thus establishing a formal schism between the ultramontane and Jansenist-leaning Roman Catholics.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=1036|pages=}} The canons of Utrecht remained without a bishop for almost fifteen years, during which it was ministered mainly by exiled French Jansenists. French bishops also ordained Dutch priests to ensure the survival of this small church.<ref name="Israel-1995" />{{Rp|page=1036|pages=}}

In 1724, Utrecht once again had bishops. It was the ''appelant'' [[Dominique Marie Varlet]], [[coadjutor bishop]] of the diocese ''[[in partibus]]'' of [[Babylon]], who settled in the Dutch Republic after fierce disputes with the Holy See. He agreed to successively ordain four bishops elected by the chapter of Utrecht. This is when the 'Little Church of Utrecht', now called the [[Old Catholic Church]], was founded. With each new [[ordination]] of a bishop, the Church sent a request for [[canonical institution]] to the pope, who invariably condemned it as a schismatic body.<ref name="Gazier-1924" />{{Rp|pages=29–32}} Throughout the 18th century, these two rival Catholic Churches were active in competition. The question of whether, and to what degree, this breakaway church was Jansenist was highly controversial; the Jesuits having a clear polemical interest in emphasising its identification as such.

The links between the Old Catholic Church and the French Jansenists are numerous and lasting. From a place of refuge in the 18th century, Utrecht has become a place of conservation of Jansenist history and traditions. There are numerous French Jansenist archives in Utrecht and [[Amersfoort]] (where the [[seminary]] was located). The funds from the Perrette box were regularly used to partially finance this church. The French Jansenists hoped, until the middle of the 19th century, to have priests ordained by Utrecht to found a church of the same kind in France, although this project never came to fruition.<ref name="Chantin-1996" />{{Rp|pages=52–54}}

=== Italy ===
The influence of Jansenism in [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]] can be explained with reference to the political fragmentation of the peninsula into numerous states that were traditionally hostile to the papacy. Relations with French Jansenists were established in the 17th century due to contacts established with religious orders, especially [[Benedictines]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]. The [[Republic of Venice]] played an important role in the translation (into Latin or Italian) and dissemination of French Jansenist texts.<ref name="Chantin-1996" />{{Rp|pages=|page=55}} However, Jansenist ideas only had an impact in northern Italy and did not pass south of Rome.

In the 18th century, it was the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]] in particular that were influenced by Jansenism. By its proximity to France, and the fact that it is partly French-speaking, [[Piedmont]] constituted an ideal refuge for Jansenists. Thus, {{Interlanguage link|Jacques Joseph Duguet|fr}} took refuge for a time at [[Tamié Abbey]], while others found refuge in [[Chambéry]]. Joining the opposition to ''Unigenitus'', [[Victor Amadeus II of Savoy]] expelled the Jesuits and replaced them with exiled Port-Royalists. In 1761, the bishop of [[Asti]] encouraged the priests to take a stand in favour of the Church in Utrecht. The Jansenists in exile therefore had significant influence in this part of Italy.<ref name="Chantin-1996" />{{Rp|pages=54–55|page=}}

[[File:Scipione de' ricci by carlo lasinio, 1787.jpg|thumb|[[Scipione de' Ricci]] (1741–1810), Italian Roman Catholic bishop who was sympathetic to Jansenism. He attempted to have it formally approved at the [[Synod of Pistoia]], but was firmly rejected by [[Pope Pius VI]] in his bull ''[[Auctorem fidei]]''.]]

In the Italian territories under [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Austrian]] domination, the situation was more complex. There, Jansenism encountered [[Josephinism]], which guided Austrian policy at that time. Both systems worked to counter the influence of the pope and the Jesuits by applying the principle of the superiority of the state over religious affairs, which was characteristic of [[Gallicanism]]. Jansenism was therefore, in a sense, more moderate religiously but harsher politically, because it was mixed with the Gallican theology of [[Edmond Richer]]. In 1761, [[Maria Theresa|Empress Maria Theresa of Austria]] opened a seminary in [[Vienna]] in the Port-Royalist spirit, calling on professors from Leuven and Holland, and had as a confessor an influential Jansenist, the Abbot of Terme. He also established the ''Nouvelles ecclésiastiques'' in Vienna in 1784.<ref name="Chantin-1996" />{{Rp|pages=56–58|page=}}

In [[Lombardy]], a territory administered directly by Vienna, the theologians [[Pietro Tamburini]], professor of the seminary at [[Brescia]] then at the [[University of Pavia]], and [[Giuseppe Zola]] propagated the theology of Richer which was deeply imbued with Jansenism. They published works on grace in the same spirit as the Port-Royalist theologians. Their works influenced many clergymen, such as [[Scipione de' Ricci]], bishop of [[Pistoia]] and [[Prato]]. He was previously [[vicar general]] of [[Florence]], where he helped [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Grand Duke Peter Leopold]] carry out his religious reforms. De' Ricci was also interested in the [[Convulsionnaires of Saint-Médard|''Convulsionnaires'']], and sought to transform his diocese according to his convictions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Godechot |first=Jacques |title=Histoire de l'Italie moderne, Tome 1 |date=1972 |publisher=Hachette |pages=46–47 |language=fr |trans-title=History of modern Italy, vol. 1}}</ref> Thus he introduced into his diocese the ''Catechism of Montpellier'', which was particularly appreciated by Jansenists, distributed to his priests the ''Réflexions morales'' of [[Pasquier Quesnel]], and finally convened a [[Synod of Pistoia|synod in Pistoia]] in 1786 to have his Jansenist orientation approved, along with a radical reform of the Latin liturgy. The synod and De' Ricci were firmly disavowed by Rome and he was forced to resign in 1791, while his positions were condemned by the papal bull ''[[Auctorem fidei]]'' in 1794.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaussard |first=Maurice |title=Jansénisme et gallicanisme aux origines religieuses du Risorgimento |date=1959 |publisher=Letouzey et Ané |language=fr |trans-title=Jansenism and Gallicanism at the religious origins of the Risorgimento}}</ref><ref name="Peterson">{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Synod of Pistoia|volume=12}}</ref>

The [[Republic of Genoa]] was also affected by Jansenism, where Port-Royalist writings were widely distributed. A Genoese priest, {{Interlanguage link|Eustache Degola|fr}}, made contact with the French Jansenists at the end of the 18th century, and in particular with [[Henri Grégoire]]. At the time of the Concordat of 1801, he travelled with Grégoire throughout Europe and then settled between 1801 and 1810 at Port-Royal-des-Champs.<ref name="Gazier-1924" />{{Rp|pages=168–169}} He also had a significant influence upon the Francophile Italian elites. Thus, he converted Countess Manzoni, raised in the [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]] faith, who was the mother of the great Italian poet [[Alessandro Manzoni]], during one of her visits to Paris. The influence of Italian Jansenism upon the founding fathers of the [[Risorgimento]] is well-known, since [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]], father of Italian unity, and [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], Italian revolutionary, were immersed in the education of Jansenist priests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gazier |first=Augustin |date=14 March 1908 |title=Manzoni à Port-Royal en 1810 |journal=Revue politique et littéraire (Revue bleue)}}</ref>