Editing Indian religions (section)

=== Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE) ===
==== Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE) ====
{{See also|History of India#Late Middle Kingdoms – The Late-Classical Age|History of Hinduism#Middle Ages|label 1=Late-Classical Age|label 2=Hinduism Middle Ages}}

After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}{{refn|group=note|In the east the [[Pala Empire]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (770–1125 CE{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), in the west and north the [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–10th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), in the southwest the [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (752–973{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), in the Dekkhan the [[Chalukya dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–8th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}), and in the south the [[Pallava dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (7th–9th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}) and the [[Chola dynasty]]{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} (9th century{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}}).}} The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} as reflected in the Tantric [[Mandala]], which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.{{sfn|White|2000|pp=25–28}}

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}{{refn|group=note|This resembles the development of [[Chinese Chán]] during the [[Chinese Chán#An Lu-shan rebellion|An Lu-shan rebellion]] and the [[Chinese Chán#Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)|Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)]], during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.{{sfn|McRae|2003}}}} Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} was diminished.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Rural and devotional movements arose, along with [[Shaivism]], [[Vaisnavism]], [[Bhakti]], and Tantra,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}

===== Vedanta =====
{{See also|Advaita Vedanta|Ajativada}}

In the same period [[Vedanta]] changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|p=127-129}} In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a "living substance"{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|p=123}} to "maya-vada"{{refn|group=note|The term "maya-vada" is primarily being used by non-Advaitins. See <ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |title=Mayavada Philosophy |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185604/https://harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |title=The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183434/https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same |title=Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same? |access-date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706152155/http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same |archive-date=6 July 2017}}</ref>}}, where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|pp=123–124}} According to Scheepers, it is this "maya-vada" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|p=127-129}}

===== Buddhism =====
{{Main|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] continued.<ref name="BBC ethics2">{{cite web |title=The rise of Buddhism and Jainism |work=Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences |publisher=BBC |date=26 July 2004 |access-date=21 April 2007 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml |archive-date=5 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805180420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-13 |title=Buddhism - Southeast Asia, Theravada, Mahayana {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Southeast-Asia |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===== Bhakti =====
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Alwars|Nayanars}}

The [[Bhakti movement]] began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status – whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu ([[Rama]] and [[Krishna]]) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of [[Durga]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} The best-known proponents of this movement were the [[Alvars]] and the [[Nayanars]] from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was [[Basava]], while of the north it was [[Gorakhnath]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Female saints include figures like [[Akka Mahadevi|Akkamadevi]], [[Lalleshvari]] and [[Molla (poet)|Molla]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

The Alvars ({{langx|ta|ஆழ்வார்கள்}}, ''āḻvārkaḷ'' {{IPA|ta|aːɻʋaːr|}}, those immersed in god) were the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] poet-saints of south India, who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused "emotional devotion" or [[bhakti]] to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf |title=The Alvars |author=Andrea Nippard |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001609/http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was [[Ramanuja]], while of the north it was [[Ramananda]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men,<ref>Ramaswamy, P. 204 ''Walking Naked''</ref> and administration was many times composed mainly of women.<ref>Ramaswamy, P. 210 ''Walking Naked''</ref> Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mirabai |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0070.xml |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-03 |title=Mira Bai {{!}} Hindu Mystic Poet, Devotee of Krishna {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mira-Bai |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Vallabha|Sri Vallabha Acharya]] (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the [[Shuddhadvaita|Shuddha Advaita (''Pure Non-dualism'')]] school of Vedanta thought.

According to ''The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training'',

{{blockquote|Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India phenomenon, which started in the 6th–7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs.  The religion of [[Alvar]] poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions.<ref group=web>[http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training, ''Indian Literature Through the Ages''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515213735/http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm |date=15 May 2013}}</ref>}}

==== Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE) ====
{{Main|Muslim conquest of India|Islamic Empires in India|Bahmani Sultanate|Deccan Sultanates|Delhi Sultanate|Sufism in India|Islam in India}}

In the 12th and 13th centuries, [[Turkic people|Turks]] and [[Afghanistan|Afghans]] invaded parts of northern India and established the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the former [[Rajput]] holdings.<ref>[http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423014415/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html |date=23 April 2008}}</ref> The subsequent [[Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)|Slave dynasty]] of [[Delhi]] managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient [[Gupta Empire]], while the [[Khalji dynasty]] conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===== Bhakti movement =====
{{More citations needed|section|date=June 2013}}

During the 14th to 17th centuries, a great ''Bhakti'' movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or ''[[Sant (religion)|Sants]]''. [[Ramananda]], [[Ravidas]], [[Srimanta Sankardeva]], [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], [[Vallabha Acharya]], [[Sur (poet)|Sur]], [[Meera]], [[Kabir]], [[Tulsidas]], [[Namdev]], [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Tukaram]], and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while [[Annamacharya]], [[Bhadrachala Ramadas]], [[Tyagaraja]], and others propagated Bhakti in the South. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.

===== Lingayatism =====
{{Main|Lingayatism}}

Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning "one who wears ''Ishtalinga'' on their body" (''Ishtalinga'' is the representation of the God). In Lingayat theology, ''Ishtalinga'' is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.<ref>M. R. Sakhare, History and Philosophy of the Lingayat Religion, Prasaranga, Karnataka University, Dharwad</ref>

===== Unifying Hinduism =====
{{Main|Unifying Hinduism}}
[[File:An aerial view of Madurai city from atop of Meenakshi Amman temple.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3.7|An aerial view of the [[Meenakshi Temple]] from the top of the southern [[gopuram]], looking north. The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire.|alt=aerial image of a temple campus.]]

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,

{{blockquote|... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophival teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}}}

The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by [[Mikel Burley]].{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}} Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}

===== Sikhism (15th century) =====
{{Main|Sikhism}}
{{See also|History of Sikhism|Sikhism and Jainism|Sikhism and Hinduism|Sikhism in India}}
[[File:Golden Temple India.jpg|thumb|[[Harmandir Sahib]] (''The Golden Temple'') is culturally the most significant place of worship for the [[Sikhs]].]]

Sikhism originated in 15th-century [[Punjab]], Delhi Sultanate (present-day [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]) with the teachings of [[Nanak]] and nine successive [[Sikh Gurus|gurus]]. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in ''[[Vāhigurū]]''— represented by the sacred symbol of ''[[Ek Onkar|ēk ōaṅkār]]'' [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the [[Punjab]]. Adherents of Sikhism are known as [[Sikhs]] (''students'' or ''disciples'') and number over 25 million across the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-other/ |title=The Global Religious Landscape |access-date=4 February 2025 |archive-date=30 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250130075000/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-other/}}</ref>