Editing Hybrid vehicle (section)

==Environmental issues==

===Fuel consumption and emissions reductions===
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional [[internal combustion engine vehicle]]s (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:
# Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller engine size more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have fewer internal losses and lower weight.
# Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the city [[driving cycle]].
# Recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as heat. This [[regenerative braking]] reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator;
Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid vehicles include:
# Using [[Atkinson cycle]] engines instead of [[Otto cycle]] engines for improved fuel economy.
# Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods.
# Improving [[Automotive aerodynamics|aerodynamics]]; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the car. A box-shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve [[vehicle handling]] at the same time.
# Using low [[rolling resistance]] [[tires]] (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical [[drag (physics)|drag]], once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of [[tire#Components|carcass]] structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power source.
# Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts.

These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, coasting, and idling periods. In addition [[roadway noise|noise emissions]] are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high-speed highway use, these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.

===Hybrid vehicle emissions===
Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of {{CO2}}. The three most popular hybrid vehicles, [[Honda Civic]], [[Honda Insight]] and [[Toyota Prius]], set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.deq.state.id.us/air/prog_issues/pollutants/vehicles.cfm#low |title=Air Quality: Vehicle Emissions and Air Quality |first=J. |last=Garcia |publisher=Idaho Department of Environmental Quality |year=2008 |access-date=2009-11-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100117133254/http://www.deq.state.id.us/air/prog_issues/pollutants/vehicles.cfm#low |archive-date=2010-01-17}}</ref>

An increase in fossil fuels is needed to build hybrid vehicles versus conventional cars. This increase is more than offset by reduced emissions when running the vehicle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/does-hybrid-car-production-waste-offset-hybrid-benefits.htm|title=Does hybrid car production waste offset hybrid benefits?|date=2010-12-06}}</ref>

Hybrid {{CO2}} emissions have been understated when comparing certification cycles to real-world driving. In one study using real-world driving data, it was shown they use on average 120&nbsp;g of {{CO2}} per km instead of the 44&nbsp;g per km in official tests.<ref>{{cite news|title=Plug-in hybrids are a 'wolf in sheep's clothing'|work= BBC News |date= 16 September 2020 |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-54170207 |access-date=2020-11-11}}</ref>

[[Toyota]] states that three Hybrid vehicles equal one [[battery electric vehicle]] in {{CO2}} reduction effect from [[carbon neutrality]] viewpoint which means reducing {{CO2}} emissions to zero throughout the entire life cycle of a product, starting from procurement of raw materials, manufacturing, and transportation to use, recycling, and disposal.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-09-08 |title=hree HEVs equal one BEV in CO2 reduction effect |url=https://toyotatimes.jp/en/insidetoyota/168_2.html#index01 |website=[[Toyota]]Times |access-date=2021-11-10 }}</ref>

===Environmental impact of hybrid car battery===
{{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2008|section}}

Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Giansoldati|first1=Marco|last2=Rotaris|first2=Lucia|last3=Scorrano|first3=Mariangela|last4=Danielis|first4=Romeo|date=March 2020|title=Does electric car knowledge influence car choice? Evidence from a hybrid choice model|journal=Research in Transportation Economics|volume=80|pages=100826|doi=10.1016/j.retrec.2020.100826|hdl=11368/2965242 |s2cid=216309011|issn=0739-8859|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/does-hybrid-car-production-waste-offset-hybrid-benefits.htm |title=Does hybrid car production waste offset hybrid benefits?|date=2010-12-06 |website=HowStuffWorks |access-date=2020-04-04}}</ref> Today, most hybrid car batteries are [[Lithium-ion]], which has higher energy density than [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|nickel–metal hydride batteries]] and is more environmentally friendly than [[lead–acid battery|lead-based batteries]] which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today.<ref name="Warner 2019 43–77">{{citation|last=Warner|first=John T.|title=Lithium-ion battery operation |date=2019 |work=Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries|pages=43–77|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-814778-8.00003-x|isbn=978-0-12-814778-8|s2cid=181737522}}</ref>

There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium-ion is the least toxic of the batteries mentioned above.<ref>Environmental impact of hybrid car battery. (2008). Retrieved December 09, 2009 from [http://www.hybridcars.com/forums/environmental-impact-hybrid-car-battery.html Hybridcars.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217182516/http://www.hybridcars.com/forums/environmental-impact-hybrid-car-battery.html |date=2011-12-17 }}</ref>

The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type previously used in hybrids—are much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one source.<ref>Hybrid Cars. (2006). Retrieved December 9, 2009 from Hybrid Battery Toxicity, [http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-toxicity.html Hybridcars.com]</ref> Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.umass.edu/p139eck/2012/12/04/how-do-hybrid-vehicles-impact-the-environment/|title=How Do Hybrid Vehicles Impact the Environment? &#124; Physics 139 eck|date=4 December 2012 }}</ref> In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gelani |first = S |author2=M. Morano | year = 1980 |title=Congenital abnormalities in nickel poisoning in chick embryos |publisher = Springer | journal = Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology | pmid=7369783 | volume=9 | issue=1 | pages=17–22 | doi=10.1007/bf01055496|bibcode = 1980ArECT...9...17G | s2cid = 7631750 }}/</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2003.08.021 | volume=533 | issue=1–2 | title=Nickel carcinogenesis | journal=Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis | pages=67–97 | pmid=14643413 | date=December 2003 | last1 = Kasprzak | first1 = KS | last2 = Sunderman | first2 = FW | last3 = Salnikow | first3 = K| bibcode=2003MRFMM.533...67K | url= https://zenodo.org/record/1259231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Comparative carcinogenic effects of nickel subsulfide, nickel oxide, or nickel sulfate hexahydrate chronic exposures in the lung. |vauthors=Dunnick JK, etal |pmid=7585584 | volume=55 |issue=22 |date=November 1995 |journal=Cancer Research |pages=5251–6}}</ref> The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode. However Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries have fallen out of favour in hybrid vehicles as various lithium-ion chemistries have become more mature to market.

The lithium-ion battery has become a market leader in this segment due to its high energy density, stability, and cost when compared to other technologies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/global-lithium-ion-battery-capacity-may-rise-five-fold-by-2030-wood-mackenzie-2022-03-22/#:~:text=March%2022%20(Reuters)%20%2D%20Global,will%20remain%20tight%20this%20year.|title = Global lithium-ion battery capacity may rise five-fold by 2030 - Wood Mackenzie|newspaper = Reuters|date = 22 March 2022}}</ref> A market leader in this area is [[Panasonic]] with their partnership with [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/573347/tesla-4680-battery-panasonic-insight/|title = Panasonic Energy CEO Shares Info About Tesla's 4680 Battery Cells}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/technology/2022/03/11/tesla-for-25000-new-panasonic-battery-set-to-cut-cost-of-electric-cars/|title = Tesla for $25,000? New Panasonic battery set to cut cost of electric cars|date = 11 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfbusiness.com/panasonic-readies-new-battery-tesla-sees-as-key-to-25000-evs/|title = Panasonic readies new battery Tesla sees as key to $25,000 EVs|date = 14 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/573698/panasonic-scouting-us-sites-new-4680-battery-cell-factory/|title = Panasonic Said to Scout US Sites for New 4680 Battery Cell Factory}}</ref>

The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel–metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well.<ref name="Warner 2019 43–77"/> The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle.<ref>{{Citation|title=Life Cycle Testing of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules|publisher=SAE International|doi=10.4271/j2288_199701}}</ref> Additionally, the use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions helping to prevent global warming.
<ref>Environmental Activities. (2009). Retrieved December 01, 2009, from Lithium-ion battery for Hybrid Electric Vehicles: [http://www.hitachi.com/environment/showcase/solution/industrial/lithiumion.html Hitachi.com]
 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220100842/http://www.hitachi.com/environment/showcase/solution/industrial/lithiumion.html |date=2009-12-20 }}</ref>

Lithium-ion batteries are also safer to recycle, with [[Volkswagen Group]] pioneering processes to recycle lithium-ion batteries;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2019/02/lithium-to-lithium-manganese-to-manganese.html|title=Battery recycling plant|website=www.volkswagenag.com|date=19 September 2023 }}</ref> this is also being chased by various other large companies, such as [[BMW]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/436066/bmw-group-ev-battery-recycling-rate-96/|title = BMW Group to Take EV Battery Recycling Rate to 96%}}</ref> [[Audi]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://internetofbusiness.com/audi-and-bmw-team-up-with-umicore-on-ev-battery-recycling/|title = Audi and BMW team up with Umicore on EV battery recycling|date = 29 October 2018}}</ref> [[Mercedes-Benz Group|Mercedes-Benz]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedriven.io/2022/03/15/mercedes-benz-to-build-battery-recycling-plant-with-australias-neometals/|title=Mercedes-Benz to build battery recycling plant with Australia's Neometals|date=14 March 2022}}</ref> and [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tesla.com/en_AU/support/sustainability-recycling|title=Sustainability|date=26 September 2018}}</ref> The main goal within many of these companies is to combat disinformation about the nature of lithium batteries, primarily that they are not recyclable, which primarily stem from articles discussing the difficulties of recycling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://greencitizen.com/lithium-ion-battery-recycling/|title = The Truth About Lithium Ion Battery Recycling|date = 31 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28 | title=It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220105-lithium-batteries-big-unanswered-question|title = Lithium batteries' big unanswered question}}</ref>

===Charging===
There are two different levels of charging in plug-in hybrids. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a 120&nbsp;V/15 A single-phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208&nbsp;V or 240&nbsp;V (at up to 80 A, 19.2&nbsp;kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for home or public units.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yilmaz|first1=M.|last2=Krein|first2=P. T.|date=May 2013|title=Review of Battery Charger Topologies, Charging Power Levels, and Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric and Hybrid Vehicles|journal=IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics|volume=28|issue=5|pages=2151–2169|doi=10.1109/TPEL.2012.2212917|issn=0885-8993|bibcode=2013ITPE...28.2151Y|s2cid=14359975}}</ref> The optimum charging window for lithium-ion batteries is 3–4.2 V. Recharging with a 120-volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240-volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. Three important factors—distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/phevtech.shtml|title=Plug-in Hybrids|access-date=2015-05-30}}</ref>
In order for hybrids to run on electrical power, the car must perform the action of braking in order to generate some electricity.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024|reason=Regenerative braking is obviously helpful, but not essential}} The electricity then gets discharged most effectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline.
In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can run on solely electricity for 70–130 miles (110–210&nbsp;km) on a single charge.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024|reason=Most hybrids cannot run on elevtricity anywhere near 70 miles on a single charge – not now, and certainly not in 2014.}} Hybrid battery capacity currently ranges from 4.4&nbsp;kWh to 85&nbsp;kWh on a fully electric car. On a hybrid car, the battery packs currently range from 0.6&nbsp;kWh to 2.4&nbsp;kWh representing a large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1094057_electric-car-battery-use-already-higher-than-hybrids-total |title=Electric-Car Battery Use: Already Higher Than Hybrids' Total? |first=John |last=Voelcker|work=Green Car Reports|date=4 September 2014 |access-date=2015-05-30}}</ref>

===Raw materials increasing costs===
{{update|date=February 2014}}
There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars.<ref name="cox">{{cite web|last=Cox |first=C |year=2008 |title=Rare earth innovation: the silent shift to china |location=Herndon, VA, US |publisher=The Anchor House |access-date=2008-03-18 |url= http://theanchorhouse.com/2008/03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421031224/http://theanchorhouse.com/2008/03/ |archive-date=2008-04-21 }}/</ref> For example, the [[rare-earth element]] [[dysprosium]] is required to fabricate many of the advanced [[electric motors]] and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems.<ref name="cox"/><ref name="Nishiyama">{{citation|first=George |last=Nishiyama |title=Interview: Japan urges China to ease rare metals supply |date=2007-11-08 |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL08815827 |access-date=2013-04-30 }}</ref> [[Neodymium]] is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors.<ref>[http://www.choruscars.com/Chorus_NEO_WhitePaper.pdf Choruscars.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708150004/http://www.choruscars.com/Chorus_NEO_WhitePaper.pdf |date=2011-07-08 }}. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-04-18.</ref>

Nearly all the [[rare-earth elements]] in the world come from China,<ref name="haxel">{{cite journal| last = Haxel | first = G |author2=J. Hedrick |author3=J. Orris | year = 2002 | title = Rare earth elements critical resources for high technology | location = Reston, VA | publisher = United States Geological Survey | journal = USGS Fact Sheet: 087-02 | series = Fact Sheet | page = 12 |url= http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs087-02/fs087-02.pdf| doi = 10.3133/fs08702| hdl = 2027/uc1.31822030852149 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2002usgs.rept...12H }}</ref> and many analysts believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012.<ref name="cox" /> In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare-earth elements have resulted in an unknown amount of supply.<ref name="Nishiyama"/><ref name="Lunn">{{cite journal|last=Lunn |first=J. |title=Great western minerals |location=London |date=2006-10-03 |url= http://www.gwmg.ca/images/file/Insinger_Report.pdf |access-date=2013-04-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130604225600/http://www.gwmg.ca/images/file/Insinger_Report.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-04 }}</ref>

A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced [[Hoidas Lake]] project in northern Canada as well as [[Mount Weld]] in Australia are currently under development;<ref name="Lunn"/> however, the barriers to entry are high<ref>Livergood, Reed [http://csis.org/files/publication/101005_DIIG_Current_Issues_no22_Rare_earth_elements.pdf CSIS.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212024126/http://csis.org/files/publication/101005_DIIG_Current_Issues_no22_Rare_earth_elements.pdf |date=2011-02-12 }}</ref> and require years to go online.