Editing History of Scotland (section)

==19th century==
[[File:Hardie elect.jpg|thumb|An election advertisement for Scottish Labour leader [[Keir Hardie]]]]
Scotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly.<ref name="Henry Hamilton 1963" /> The population grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.<ref>A. K. Cairncross, ''The Scottish economy'' (1953) p. 10.</ref> The economy, long based on agriculture,<ref name="Henry Hamilton 1963" /> began to industrialise after 1790. At first the leading industry, based in the west, was the spinning and weaving of cotton. In 1861, the American Civil War suddenly cut off the supplies of raw cotton and the industry never recovered. Thanks to its many entrepreneurs and engineers, and its large stock of easily mined coal, Scotland became a world centre for engineering, shipbuilding, and locomotive construction, with steel replacing iron after 1870.<ref>Olive Checkland and Sydney Checkland, ''Industry and Ethos: Scotland 1832 – 1914'' (2nd ed. 1989).</ref>

===Party politics===
The [[Scottish Reform Act 1832]] increased the number of Scottish MPs and significantly widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes. From this point until the end of the century, the Whigs and (after 1859) their successors the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], managed to gain a majority of the Westminster Parliamentary seats for Scotland, although these were often outnumbered by the much larger number of English and Welsh Conservatives.<ref name="Devine&Finlay1996pp64-5">{{Cite book |title=Scotland in the Twentieth Century |date=1996 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=0-748-60751-X |editor-last=Devine |editor-first=Tom M. |editor-link=Tom Devine |pages=64–65 |ol=742852M |editor-last2=Finlay |editor-first2=Richard J. |editor-link2=Richard J. Finlay}}</ref> The English-educated Scottish peer [[Lord Aberdeen]] (1784–1860) led a coalition government from 1852 to 1855, but in general very few Scots held office in the government.<ref>M. Oaten, ''Coalition: the Politics and Personalities of Coalition Government from 1850'' (Harriman House, 2007), pp. 37–40.</ref> From the mid-century there were increasing calls for Home Rule for Scotland and when the Conservative [[Lord Salisbury]] became prime minister in 1885 he responded to pressure by reviving the post of [[Secretary of State for Scotland]], which had been in abeyance since 1746.<ref>F. Requejo and K-J Nagel, ''Federalism Beyond Federations: Asymmetry and Processes of Re-symmetrization in Europe'' (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011), p. 39.</ref> He appointed the [[Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond|Duke of Richmond]], a wealthy landowner who was both Chancellor of Aberdeen University and Lord Lieutenant of Banff.<ref>J. G. Kellas, "Unionists as nationalists", in W. Lockley, ed., ''Anglo-Scottish Relations from 1900 to Devolution and Beyond'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 52.</ref> Towards the end of the century Prime Ministers of Scottish descent included the Tory, [[Peelite]] and Liberal [[William Gladstone]], who held the office four times between 1868 and 1894.<ref name="Quinault2007">R. Quinault, "Scots on Top? Tartan Power at Westminster 1707–2007", ''History Today'', 2007 57(7): 30–36. {{ISSN|0018-2753}} Fulltext: [[EBSCO Information Services|Ebsco]].</ref> The first Scottish Liberal to become prime minister was [[the Earl of Rosebery]], from 1894 to 1895, like Aberdeen before him a product of the English education system.<ref>K. Kumar, ''The Making of English National Identity'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 183.</ref> In the later 19th century the issue of [[Irish Home Rule]] led to a split among the Liberals, with a minority breaking away to form the [[Liberal Unionists]] in 1886.<ref name=Devine&Finlay1996pp64-5/> The growing importance of the working classes was marked by [[Keir Hardie]]'s success in the [[1888 Mid Lanarkshire by-election]], leading to the foundation of the [[Scottish Labour Party (1888)|Scottish Labour Party]], which was absorbed into the [[Independent Labour Party]] in 1895, with Hardie as its first leader.<ref>D. Howell, ''British Workers and the Independent Labour Party, 1888–1906'' (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. 144.</ref>

===Industrial expansion===
[[File:NewlanarkNL06.jpg|thumb|left|[[New Lanark]] cotton mill on the banks of the River Clyde, founded in 1786.]]
From about 1790 textiles became the most important industry in the west of Scotland, especially the spinning and weaving of cotton, which flourished until in 1861 the [[American Civil War]] cut off the supplies of raw cotton.<ref>W. O. Henderson, ''The Lancashire Cotton Famine 1861–65'' (1934), p. 122.</ref> The industry never recovered, but by that time Scotland had developed heavy industries based on its coal and iron resources. The invention of the hot blast for smelting iron (1828) revolutionised the Scottish iron industry. As a result, Scotland became a centre for engineering, shipbuilding and the production of locomotives. Toward the end of the 19th century, steel production largely replaced iron production.<ref>C. A. Whatley, ''The Industrial Revolution in Scotland'' (1997), p. 51.</ref> Coal mining continued to grow into the 20th century, producing the fuel to heat homes, factories and drive steam engines locomotives and steamships. By 1914, there were 1,000,000 coal miners in Scotland.<ref>A. Campbell, ''The Scottish Miners, 1874–1939'' (2000),</ref> The stereotype emerged early on of Scottish colliers as brutish, non-religious and socially isolated serfs;<ref>Christopher A. Whatley, "Scottish 'collier serfs', British coal workers? Aspects of Scottish collier society in the eighteenth century," ''Labour History Review,'' Fall 1995, Vol. 60 Issue 2, pp. 66–79.</ref> that was an exaggeration, for their life style resembled the miners everywhere, with a strong emphasis on masculinity, equalitarianism, group solidarity, and support for radical labour movements.<ref>Alan Campbell, ''Scottish Miners, 1874–1939. Vol. 1: Industry, Work & Community;'' ''The Scottish Miners, 1874–1939. Vol. 2: Trade Unions and Politics.'' (2000).</ref>

Britain was the world leader in the construction of railways, and their use to expand trade and coal supplies. The first successful locomotive-powered line in Scotland, between [[Monklands (district)|Monkland]] and [[Kirkintilloch]], opened in 1831.<ref>C. F. Marshall, ''A History of Railway Locomotives Until 1831'' (1926) p. 223.</ref> Not only was good passenger service established by the late 1840s, but an excellent network of freight lines reduce the cost of shipping coal, and made products manufactured in Scotland competitive throughout Britain. For example, railways opened the London market to Scottish beef and milk. They enabled the [[Aberdeen Angus]] to become a cattle breed of worldwide reputation.<ref>O. Checkland and S. G. Checkland, ''Industry and Ethos: Scotland, 1832–1914'' (2nd edn., 1989), pp. 17–52.</ref> By 1900, Scotland had 3500 miles of railway; their main economic contribution was moving supplies in and product out for heavy industry, especially coal-mining.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vamplew |first=Wray |year=1971 |title=Railways and the Transformation of the Scottish Economy |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=37–54 |doi=10.2307/2593639 |jstor=2593639 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1842/17698}}</ref>

[[File:John Atkinson Grimshaw - Shipping on the Clyde (1881).jpg|thumb|right|''Shipping on the Clyde'', by [[John Atkinson Grimshaw]], 1881]]
Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800.<ref>{{Harvp|Ferguson|1998}}.</ref> The industrial belt ran across the country from southwest to northeast; by 1900 the four industrialised counties of Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Dunbartonshire, and Ayrshire contained 44 per cent of the population.<ref>I.H. Adams, ''The Making of Urban Scotland'' (1978).</ref> Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world, and known as "the Second City of the Empire" after London.<ref>J. F. MacKenzie, "The second city of the Empire: Glasgow – imperial municipality", in F. Driver and D. Gilbert, eds, ''Imperial Cities: Landscape, Display and Identity'' (2003), pp. 215–223.</ref> Shipbuilding on [[Clydeside]] (the river Clyde through Glasgow and other points) began when the first small yards were opened in 1712 at the [[Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company|Scott family's]] shipyard at Greenock. After 1860, the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron (after 1870, made of steel), which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world. It became the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre. ''Clydebuilt'' became an industry benchmark of quality, and the river's shipyards were given contracts for warships.<ref name="Shields1949">J. Shields, ''Clyde Built: a History of Ship-Building on the River Clyde'' (1949).</ref>

===Public health and welfare===
The industrial developments, while they brought work and wealth, were so rapid that housing, town-planning, and provision for public health did not keep pace with them, and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad, with overcrowding, high infant mortality, and growing rates of tuberculosis.<ref>C. H. Lee, ''Scotland and the United Kingdom: the Economy and the Union in the Twentieth Century'' (1995), p. 43.</ref> The companies attracted rural workers, as well as immigrants from Catholic Ireland, by inexpensive company housing that was a dramatic move upward from the inner-city slums. This paternalistic policy led many owners to endorse government sponsored housing programs as well as self-help projects among the respectable working class.<ref>J. Melling, "Employers, industrial housing and the evolution of company welfare policies in Britain's heavy industry: west Scotland, 1870–1920", ''International Review of Social History'', Dec 1981, vol. 26 (3), pp. 255–301.</ref>

===Intellectual life===
[[File:Sir Henry Raeburn - Portrait of Sir Walter Scott.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Walter Scott]], whose [[Waverley Novels]] helped define Scottish identity in the 19th century]]
While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century,<ref name="Magnusson" /> disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as the mathematicians and physicists [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Lord Kelvin]], and the engineers and inventors [[James Watt]] and [[William Murdoch]], whose work was critical to the technological developments of the Industrial Revolution throughout Britain.<ref>E. Wills, ''Scottish Firsts: a Celebration of Innovation and Achievement'' (Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2002).</ref>

In literature the most successful figure of the mid-nineteenth century was [[Walter Scott]], who began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, [[Waverley (novel)|Waverley]] in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.<ref>{{Citation |last=K. S. Whetter |title=Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance |page=28 |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate}}</ref> It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity.<ref>{{Citation |last=N. Davidson |title=The Origins of Scottish Nationhood |page=136 |year=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press}}</ref> In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations. [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s work included the [[urban Gothic]] novella ''[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]'' (1886), and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like ''[[Kidnapped (novel)|Kidnapped]]'' and ''[[Treasure Island]]''. [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s ''[[Sherlock Holmes]]'' stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction. The "[[Kailyard school|kailyard tradition]]" at the end of the century, brought elements of fantasy and [[folklore]] back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like [[J. M. Barrie]], most famous for his creation of [[Peter Pan]], and [[George MacDonald]], whose works, including ''[[Phantasies]]'', played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre.<ref>{{Citation |title=Cultural Profile: 19th and early 20th century developments |url=http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html |work=Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034445/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html |archive-date=30 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Scotland also played a major part in the development of art and architecture. The [[Glasgow School]], which developed in the late 19th century, and flourished in the early 20th century, produced a distinctive blend of influences including the [[Celtic Revival]] the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]], and [[Japonisme]], which found favour throughout the [[modern art]] world of continental Europe and helped define the [[Art Nouveau]] style. Among the most prominent members were the loose collective of The Four: acclaimed architect [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]], his wife the painter and [[glass artist]] [[Margaret MacDonald (artist)|Margaret MacDonald]], her sister the artist [[Frances MacDonald|Frances]], and her husband, the artist and teacher [[Herbert MacNair]].<ref>Stephan Tschudi-Madsen, ''The Art Nouveau Style: a Comprehensive Guide'' (Courier Dover, 2002), pp. 283–284.</ref>

===Decline and romanticism of the Highlands===
[[File:George IV in kilt, by Wilkie.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|''[[George IV in Highland Dress]]'', [[David Wilkie (artist)|David Wilkie]]'s flattering portrait of the [[kilt]]ed [[King George IV]]]]
This period saw a process of rehabilitation for highland culture. Tartan had already been adopted for highland regiments in the British army, which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in 1815, but by the 19th century it had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people. In the 1820s, as part of the [[Romanticism|Romantic revival]], tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland, but across Europe,<ref>J. L. Roberts, [https://books.google.com/books?id=WlnNUCS4R_MC&pg=PA193 ''The Jacobite Wars''], pp. 193–195.</ref><ref name="Sievers2007">M. Sievers, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_U-5sq5MDBQC&q=tartan+highland+romantic&pg=PA23 ''The Highland Myth as an Invented Tradition of 18th and 19th century and Its Significance for the Image of Scotland''] (GRIN Verlag, 2007), pp. 22–25.</ref> prompted by the popularity of Macpherson's Ossian cycle<ref>P. Morère, ''Scotland and France in the Enlightenment'' (Bucknell University Press, 2004), pp. 75–76.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Ferguson|1998|page=227}}.</ref> and then Walter Scott's Waverley novels. The world paid attention to their literary redefinition of Scottishness, as they forged an image largely based on characteristics in polar opposition to those associated with England and modernity. This new identity made it possible for Scottish culture to become integrated into a wider European and North American context, not to mention tourist sites, but it also locked in a sense of "otherness" which Scotland began to shed only in the late 20th century.<ref>Divine, ''Scottish Nation'' pp. 292–295; for the antecedents created by the Stuarts see Murray Pittock, ''The Invention of Scotland: The Stuart Myth and the Scottish Identity, 1638 to the Present'' (1991)</ref> Scott's "staging" of the royal [[Visit of King George IV to Scotland]] in 1822 and the king's wearing of tartan, resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry. The designation of individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period and became a major symbol of Scottish identity.<ref>N. C. Milne, [https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z_G1jHe2aAC&pg=PA138 ''Scottish Culture and Traditions''] (Paragon Publishing, 2010), p. 138.</ref> The fashion for all things Scottish was maintained by [[Queen Victoria]], who helped secure the identity of Scotland as a tourist resort, with [[Balmoral Castle]] in Aberdeenshire becoming a major royal residence from 1852.<ref name=Sievers2007/>

=== Land use and ownership ===
Despite these changes the highlands remained very poor and traditional, with few connections to the uplift of the Scottish Enlightenment and little role in the Industrial Revolution.<ref>M. Gray, ''The Highland Economy, 1750–1850'' (Greenwood, 1976).</ref> A handful of powerful families, typified by the dukes of [[Duke of Argyll|Argyll]], [[Duke of Atholl|Atholl]], [[Duke of Buccleuch|Buccleuch]], and [[Duke of Sutherland|Sutherland]], owned large amounts of land and controlled local political, legal and economic affairs.<ref>H. Pelling, ''Social Geography of British Elections 1885–1910'' (1960, Gregg Revivals, rpt., 1994), p. 373.</ref> Particularly after the end of the boom created by the [[French Revolutionary Wars|Revolutionary]] and Napoleonic Wars (1790–1815), these landlords needed cash to maintain their position in London society, and had less need of soldiers. They turned to money rents, displaced farmers to raise sheep, and downplayed the traditional patriarchal relationship that had historically sustained the clans. [[Potato blight]] reached the Highlands in 1846, where 150,000 people [[Highland potato famine|faced disaster]] because their food supply was largely potatoes (with a little herring, oatmeal and milk). They were rescued by an effective emergency relief system that stands in dramatic contrast to the failures of relief in [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Ireland]].<ref>T. C. Smout, ''A Century of the Scottish People: 1830–1950'' (1986), pp. 12–14.</ref> As the famine continued, landlords, charities and government agencies provided "assisted passages" for destitute tenants to emigrate to Canada and Australia; in excess of 16,000 people emigrated, with most travelling in 1851.{{R|Devine 1995|p=201,207,268}}<ref name="Devine 1994" />{{Rp|187–189}}
[[File:-Spying in Glenfeshie- MET DP148525.jpg|thumb|Deer stalkers on Glenfeshie Estate spying with telescopes, {{Circa|1858}}]]
Caused by the advent of [[refrigeration]] and imports of lamb, mutton and wool from overseas, the 1870s brought with them a collapse of sheep prices and an abrupt halt in the previous sheep farming boom.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Warren |first=Charles R. |url=https://archive.org/details/managingscotland00warr |title=Managing Scotland's environment |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780748630639 |edition=2nd ed., completely rev. and updated |location=Edinburgh |pages=[https://archive.org/details/managingscotland00warr/page/n73 45] ff., 179 ff |oclc=647881331 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Land prices subsequently plummeted, too, and accelerated the process of the so-called "Balmoralisation" of Scotland, an era in the second half of the 19th century that saw an increase in tourism and the establishment of large estates dedicated to [[Hunting|field sports]] like [[deer stalking]] and [[grouse shooting]], especially in the Scottish Highlands.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Glass |first=Jayne |title=Lairds, Land and Sustainability: Scottish Perspectives on Upland Management |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780748685882 |location=Edinburgh |pages=45 ff., 77 f |oclc=859160940}}</ref> The process was named after [[Balmoral estate]], purchased by Queen Victoria in 1848, that fueled the romanticisation of upland Scotland and initiated an influx of the newly wealthy acquiring similar estates in the following decades.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> By the late 19th century just 118 people owned half of Scotland, with nearly 60 per cent of the whole country being part of shooting estates.<ref name=":0" /> While their relative importance has somewhat declined due to changing recreational interests throughout the 20th century, deer stalking and grouse shooting remain of prime importance on many private estates in Scotland.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wightman |first1=A. |last2=Higgins |first2=P. |last3=Jarvie |first3=G. |last4=Nicol |first4=R. |date=2002 |title=The Cultural Politics of Hunting: Sporting Estates and Recreational Land Use in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland |journal=Culture, Sport, Society |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=53–70 |doi=10.1080/713999852 |issn=1461-0981 |s2cid=144048546}}</ref>

===Rural life===
The unequal [[concentration of land ownership]] remained an emotional subject and eventually became a cornerstone of liberal radicalism. The politically powerless poor crofters embraced the popularly oriented, fervently evangelical Presbyterian [[Christian revival|revival]] after 1800,<ref>Divine, ''The Scottish Nation''.</ref> and the breakaway "Free Church" after 1843. This evangelical movement was led by lay preachers who themselves came from the lower strata, and whose preaching was implicitly critical of the established order. This energised the crofters and separated them from the landlords, preparing them for their successful and violent challenge to the landlords in the 1880s through the [[Highland Land League]].<ref>{{Citation |last=J. Hunter |title=The Emergence of the Crofting Community: The Religious Contribution 1798–1843 |work=Scottish Studies |volume=18 |pages=95–111 |year=1974}}</ref> Violence began on the [[Isle of Skye]] when Highland landlords cleared their lands for sheep and deer parks. It was quieted when the government stepped in passing the [[Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act, 1886]] to reduce rents, guarantee fixity of tenure, and break up large estates to provide crofts for the homeless.<ref>{{Citation |last=I. Bradley |title='Having and Holding': The Highland Land War of the 1880s |date=December 1987 |work=History Today |volume=37 |pages=23–28}}</ref> In 1885, three Independent Crofter candidates were elected to Parliament, leading to explicit security for the Scottish smallholders; the legal right to bequeath tenancies to descendants; and creating a [[Crofting Commission]]. The Crofters as a political movement faded away by 1892, and the Liberal Party gained most of their votes.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ewen A. Cameron |title=Communication or Separation? Reactions to Irish Land Agitation and Legislation in the Highlands of Scotland, c. 1870–1910 |date=June 2005 |journal=English Historical Review |volume=120 |issue=487 |pages=633–666 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cei124}}</ref>

===Emigration===
[[File:Andrew Carnegie's statue, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of industrialist [[Andrew Carnegie]] in his home town of [[Dunfermline]]]]
The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.<ref>A. K. Cairncross, ''The Scottish Economy: A Statistical Account of Scottish Life by Members of the Staff of Glasgow University'' (Glasgow: Glasgow University Press, 1953), p. 10.</ref> Even with the development of industry there were insufficient good jobs; as a result, during the period 1841–1931, about 2 million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 Scots relocated to England.<ref name=Huston&Knox2001pxxxii/> Scotland lost a much higher proportion of its population than England and Wales,<ref name="Thompson1990pp9-10">F. M. L. Thompson, ''The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750 –1950: People and Their Environment'' (Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 9–10.</ref> reaching perhaps as much as 30.2 per cent of its [[natural increase]] from the 1850s onwards.<ref>C. Williams, ''A Companion to Nineteenth-Century Britain'' (John Wiley and Sons, 2004), p. 508.</ref> This not only limited Scotland's population increase, but meant that almost every family lost members due to emigration and, because more of them were young males, it skewed the sex and age ratios of the country.<ref name=Thompson1990pp9-10/>

Scots-born emigrants that played a leading role in the foundation and development of the United States included cleric and revolutionary [[John Witherspoon]],<ref>J. H. Morrison, ''John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic'' (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).</ref> sailor [[John Paul Jones]], industrialist and philanthropist [[Andrew Carnegie]], and scientist and inventor [[Alexander Graham Bell]].<ref>J. S. Sawyers, ''Famous Firsts of Scottish-Americans'' (Pelican, 1996).</ref> In Canada they included soldier and governor of Quebec [[James Murray (Quebec governor)|James Murray]], Prime Minister [[John A. Macdonald]] and politician and social reformer [[Tommy Douglas]].<ref>{{Citation |last=J. M. Bunsted |title=Scots |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0007222 |encyclopedia=Canadian Encyclopedia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523135213/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0007222 |archive-date=23 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> For Australia they included soldier and governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]], governor and scientist [[Thomas Brisbane]] and Prime Minister [[Andrew Fisher]].<ref>M. D. Prentis, ''The Scots in Australia'' (Sydney NSW: UNSW Press, 2008).</ref> For New Zealand they included politician [[Peter Fraser]] and outlaw [[James Mckenzie (outlaw)|James Mckenzie]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Scots |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/scots/9 |work=Te Ara |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516113712/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/scots/9 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> By the 21st century, there would be about as many people who were [[Scottish Canadians]] and [[Scottish American]]s as the 5 million remaining in Scotland.<ref name="Huston&Knox2001pxxxii">R. A. Houston and W. W. Knox, eds., ''The New Penguin History of Scotland'' (Penguin, 2001), p. xxxii.</ref>{{Clear}}

===Religious schism and revival===
{{Main|History of Christianity in Scotland}}
[[File:Thomas Chalmers statue, George Street Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Chalmers]] statue in George Street, Edinburgh]]
After prolonged years of struggle, in 1834 the Evangelicals gained control of the [[General Assembly of the Church of Scotland|General Assembly]] and passed the Veto Act, which allowed congregations to reject unwanted "intrusive" presentations to livings by patrons. The following "Ten Years' Conflict" of legal and political wrangling ended in defeat for the non-intrusionists in the civil courts. The result was a schism from the church by some of the non-intrusionists led by Dr [[Thomas Chalmers]] known as the Great [[Disruption of 1843]]. Roughly a third of the clergy, mainly from the North and Highlands, formed the separate [[Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900)|Free Church of Scotland]]. The evangelical Free Churches, which were more accepting of Gaelic language and culture, grew rapidly in the Highlands and Islands, appealing much more strongly than did the established church.<ref name=Robb1990/> Chalmers's ideas shaped the breakaway group. He stressed a social vision that revived and preserved Scotland's communal traditions at a time of strain on the social fabric of the country. Chalmers's idealised small equalitarian, kirk-based, self-contained communities that recognised the individuality of their members and the need for co-operation.<ref>J. Brown Stewart, ''Thomas Chalmers and the godly Commonwealth in Scotland'' (1982)</ref> That vision also affected the mainstream Presbyterian churches, and by the 1870s it had been assimilated by the established Church of Scotland. Chalmers's ideals demonstrated that the church was concerned with the problems of urban society, and they represented a real attempt to overcome the social fragmentation that took place in industrial towns and cities.<ref>S. Mechie, ''The Church and Scottish social development, 1780–1870'' (1960).</ref>

In the late 19th century the major debates were between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals, who rejected a literal interpretation of the Bible. This resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the [[Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland|Free Presbyterian Church]] in 1893.<ref name=Koch2006p416-7/> There were, however, also moves towards reunion, beginning with the unification of some secessionist churches into the [[United Secession Church]] in 1820, which united with the Relief Church in 1847 to form the [[United Presbyterian Church of Scotland|United Presbyterian Church]], which in turn joined with the Free Church in 1900 to form the [[United Free Church of Scotland]]. The removal of legislation on lay patronage would allow the majority of the Free Church to rejoin Church of Scotland in 1929. The schisms left small denominations including the [[Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland|Free Presbyterians]] and a remnant that had not merged in 1900 as the [[Free Church of Scotland (post 1900)|Free Church]].<ref name=Koch2006p416-7/>

[[Catholic Emancipation]] in 1829 and the influx of large numbers of Irish immigrants, particularly after the famine years of the late 1840s, principally to the growing lowland centres like Glasgow, led to a transformation in the fortunes of Catholicism. In 1878, despite opposition, a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy was restored to the country, and Catholicism became a significant denomination within Scotland.<ref name=Koch2006p416-7/> Episcopalianism also revived in the 19th century as the issue of succession receded, becoming established as the [[Episcopal Church in Scotland]] in 1804, as an autonomous organisation in communion with the [[Church of England]].<ref name=Koch2006p416-7/> [[Baptist Union of Scotland|Baptist]], [[Congregational Union of Scotland|Congregationalist]] and [[Methodist]] churches had appeared in Scotland in the 18th century, but did not begin significant growth until the 19th century,<ref name=Koch2006p416-7/> partly because more radical and evangelical traditions already existed within the Church of Scotland and the free churches. From 1879 they were joined by the evangelical revivalism of the [[Salvation Army]], which attempted to make major inroads in the growing urban centres.<ref name=Ditchfield1998p91/>

===Development of state education===
{{Main|History of education in Scotland}}
[[File:Mearns Street Public School 28Feb10.jpg|thumb|left|The Mearns Street Public School built for the [[Greenock]] Burgh School Board.]]
Industrialisation, urbanisation and the Disruption of 1843 all undermined the tradition of parish schools. From 1830 the state began to fund buildings with grants, then from 1846 it was funding schools by direct sponsorship, and in 1872 Scotland moved to a system like that in England of state-sponsored largely free schools, run by local school boards.<ref>{{Harvp|Devine|1999|pp=91–100}}.</ref> Overall administration was in the hands of the Scotch (later Scottish) Education Department in London.<ref>{{Citation |title=Education records |url=http://www.nas.gov.uk/guides/education.asp |work=National Archive of Scotland |year=2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831123604/http://www.nas.gov.uk/guides/education.asp |archive-date=31 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Education was now compulsory from five to thirteen and many new board schools were built. Larger urban school boards established "higher grade" (secondary) schools as a cheaper alternative to the burgh schools. The Scottish Education Department introduced a Leaving Certificate Examination in 1888 to set national standards for secondary education and in 1890 school fees were abolished, creating a state-funded national system of free basic education and common examinations.<ref name=Anderson2003/>

At the beginning of the 19th century, Scottish universities had no entrance exam, students typically entered at ages of 15 or 16, attended for as little as two years, chose which lectures to attend and could leave without qualifications. After two commissions of enquiry in 1826 and 1876 and reforming acts of parliament in 1858 and 1889, the curriculum and system of graduation were reformed to meet the needs of the emerging middle classes and the professions. Entrance examinations equivalent to the School Leaving Certificate were introduced and average ages of entry rose to 17 or 18. Standard patterns of graduation in the arts curriculum offered 3-year ordinary and 4-year honours degrees and separate science faculties were able to move away from the compulsory Latin, Greek and philosophy of the old MA curriculum.<ref name="Anderson2003p224">{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Robert |title=The history of Scottish Education pre-1980 |date=2003 |work=Scottish Education: Post-Devolution |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-74-861625-1 |editor-last=Bryce |editor-first=T. G. K. |edition=2nd |page=224 |ol=9885324M |editor-last2=Humes |editor-first2=W. M.}}</ref> The historic University of Glasgow became a leader in British higher education by providing the educational needs of youth from the urban and commercial classes, as well as the upper class. It prepared students for non-commercial careers in government, the law, medicine, education, and the ministry and a smaller group for careers in science and engineering.<ref>Paul L. Robertson, "The Development of an Urban University: Glasgow, 1860–1914", ''History of Education Quarterly'', Winter 1990, vol. 30 (1), pp. 47–78.</ref> St Andrews pioneered the admission of women to Scottish universities, creating the Lady Licentiate in Arts (LLA), which proved highly popular. From 1892 Scottish universities could admit and graduate women and the numbers of women at Scottish universities steadily increased until the early 20th century.<ref name="Rayner-Canham2008">M. F. Rayner-Canham and G. Rayner-Canham, ''Chemistry was Their Life: Pioneering British Women Chemists, 1880–1949'' (Imperial College Press, 2008), p. 264.</ref>
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