Editing History of Indonesia (section)

==New Order==
{{Main|New Order (Indonesia)}}

===Transition to the New Order===
{{Main|Transition to the New Order}}
{{See also|30 September Movement|Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66}}
[[File:Logo of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg|thumb|left|upright|During the mid-20th century. It was the largest non-ruling communist party in the world before its eradication in 1965 and ban the following year.]]

Described as the great ''dalang'' ("puppet master"), Sukarno's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and the [[Communist Party of Indonesia|PKI]]. Sukarno's anti-imperialist ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China. Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army.<ref>[[Julia Lovell]], ''Maoism: A Global History'' (2019) pp 151–84.</ref>

On 30 September 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were assassinated in an attempted coup. The insurgents, known later as the [[30 September Movement]], backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station. They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno. Within a few hours, [[Suharto|Major General Suharto]], commander of the Army Strategic Reserve ([[Kostrad]]), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear that the coup, which had little co-ordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed. [[30 September Movement#Theories about the 30 September Movement|Complicated and partisan theories]] continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organisers and their aims. According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto's subsequent [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]] administration. Although there is not broad agreement on who bears ultimate responsibility for the coup or even if there was really a single mastermind controlling all events, modern evidence has suggested at least a role played by Western intelligence agencies including the American [[Central Intelligence Agency]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Peter Dale |date=1985 |title=The United States and the Overthrow of Sukarno, 1965–1967 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2758262 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=239–264 |doi=10.2307/2758262 |jstor=2758262 |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105210848/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2758262 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bevins |first=Vincent |date=20 October 2017 |title=What the United States Did in Indonesia |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/ |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the United Kingdom's [[MI6]].<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Paul Lashmar |author2=Nicholas Gilby |author3=James Oliver |date=17 October 2021 |title=Slaughter in Indonesia: Britain's secret propaganda war |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en |archive-date=27 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227084505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war |url-status=live}}</ref>

The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, went on a violent [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|anti-communist purge]] across much of the country. The PKI was effectively destroyed,<ref>{{harvp|Friend|2003|pp=107–109}}</ref><ref>{{cite video | people =Chris Hilton (writer and director) | title =Shadowplay | medium =Television documentary | publisher =Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|pp=280–284, 287–290}}</ref> and the most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and 1 million were killed.<ref>{{harvp|Robinson|2018|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Melvin|2018}}</ref><ref name="Friend_113">{{harvp|Friend|2003|p=113}}</ref> The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned.<ref name="Friend_113"/> The United States and other Western powers facilitated and supported the purge.<ref>{{harvp|Robinson|2018|pp=177, 206–207}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Melvin|2018|pp=9–10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent|authorlink=Vincent Bevins |title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |page=157 |isbn=978-1541742406}}</ref>

Throughout the 1965–66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI's demise. Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to [[Suharto|General Suharto]], who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.

===Consolidation of the New Order===
[[Image:President Suharto, 1993.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Suharto]] was the military president of Indonesia from 1967 to 1998. His regime was marked by corruption, human rights abuses, and authoritarian rule.]]

In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters, with direct support from the United States.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bevins|first=Vincent|date=20 October 2017|title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|work=The Atlantic|access-date=12 July 2018|quote="the U.S. was part and parcel of the operation, strategizing with the Indonesian army and encouraging them to go after the PKI." – historian John Roosa|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/telegrams-confirm-scale-of-us-complicity-in-1965-genocide/|title=Telegrams confirm scale of US complicity in 1965 genocide|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=20 October 2017|website=Indonesia at Melbourne|publisher=[[University of Melbourne]]|access-date=12 July 2018|quote=The new telegrams confirm the US actively encouraged and facilitated genocide in Indonesia to pursue its own political interests in the region, while propagating an explanation of the killings it knew to be untrue.|archive-date=8 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208113040/https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/telegrams-confirm-scale-of-us-complicity-in-1965-genocide/|url-status=live}}</ref> Suharto's administration is commonly called the ''[[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]'' era.<ref>The Library Congress. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060618231312/http://www.indonesiaphoto.com/content/view/102/46/ "History of Indonesia #10"]}}.</ref> Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption.<ref>[http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002017.html "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021010216/http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002017.html |date=21 October 2006}}.</ref>

===Annexation of West Irian===
{{See also|Western New Guinea Dispute|Operation Trikora}}

At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of [[New Guinea]] (also known as [[Western New Guinea|West Irian]]), and permitted steps towards self-government and a declaration of independence on 1 December 1961. After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion 18 December preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the [[New York Agreement]], and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on 1 May 1963.

Rejecting UN supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favour. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an '[[Act of Free Choice]]' was conducted in 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. They were warned to vote in favour of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newint.org/features/1999/11/05/free/|title=Breaking Free From Betrayal|issue=318|work=[[New Internationalist]]|date=November 1999|access-date=17 January 2017|archive-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516223813/http://newint.org/features/1999/11/05/free/|url-status=live}}</ref> A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.

West Irian was renamed [[Irian Jaya]] ('glorious Irian') in 1973. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]]) gave rise to [[Papua conflict|guerrilla activity]] in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.

===Annexation of East Timor===
{{Main|Indonesian occupation of East Timor}}
[[File:Timor Timur women.jpg|thumb|left|Timorese women with the [[Indonesia]]n national flag]]

In 1975, the [[Carnation Revolution]] in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of [[Portuguese Timor]], the eastern half of the island of [[Timor]] whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of [[East Nusa Tenggara]]. In the East Timorese elections held in 1975, [[Fretilin]], a left-leaning party, and [[Timorese Democratic Union|UDT]], aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. [[Timorese Popular Democratic Association|Apodeti]], a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.

Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on 11 August 1975 and the start of a [[East Timorese civil war|month-long civil war]]. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory and did not resume the decolonisation process. On 28 November, Fretilin [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared independence]], and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesia [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded East Timor]], eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.

Following the [[Fall of Suharto|1998 resignation of Suharto]], the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|a UN-sponsored referendum]] held on 30 August 1999. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]] (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002.

===Transmigration===
{{Main|Transmigration program}}

The Transmigration program (''Transmigrasi'') was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas of [[Indonesia]] (such as [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Bali]]) to less populous areas of the country including [[Western New Guinea|Papua]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Sulawesi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Govt builds transmigration museum in Lampung |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/05/02/govt-builds-transmigration-museum-lampung.html |website=The Jakarta Post |access-date=December 6, 2024 |date=June 4, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604015847/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/05/02/govt-builds-transmigration-museum-lampung.html |archive-date=4 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia - The transmigration program in perspective (English) |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/353671468771708841/indonesia-the-transmigration-program-in-perspective |website=World Bank Group |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref> The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for [[utilitarianism|hard-working]] poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands. The program, however, has been controversial, with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in destination areas to weaken separatist movements.<ref name="Anata">{{Cite book|title=The Indonesian Crisis: A Human Development Perspective|first=Aris|last=Anata|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2003|pages=229–230}}</ref> The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations.