Editing History of Denmark (section)

== 19th century ==
{{anchor|The 19th century}}
{{see|Danish Golden Age}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = ''Helstaten'' {{small|([[Danish language|da]])}}<br />''Dänischer Gesamtstaat'' {{small|([[German language|de]])}}
| conventional_long_name = Danish Unitary State
| common_name            = 
| era                    = Late Modern Period
| status                 = ''[[personal union]]'' between [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]], [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]], [[Duchy of Lauenburg|Lauenburg]] and [[Denmark]]
| year_start             = 1814
| year_end               = 1864
| event_start            = 
| date_start             = 
| event1                 = [[Treaty of Kiel]]
| date_event1            = 14 January 1814
| event2                 = [[First Schleswig War]]
| date_event2            = 1848–1851
| event_end              = 
| date_end               = 
| image_map              = File:Lands_ruled_by_the_Danish_Monarch_1815.png
| image_map_caption      = Territories that were part of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]] from 1814 to 1864
| common_languages       = [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[German Language|German]]
| religion               = [[Lutheranism]]
| leader1                = [[Frederik VI of Denmark|Frederik VI]]
| leader2                = [[Christian VIII of Denmark|Christian VIII]]
| leader3                = [[Frederik VII of Denmark|Frederik VII]]
| leader4                = [[Christian IX of Denmark|Christian IX]]
| year_leader1           = 1808–1839
| year_leader2           = 1839–1848
| year_leader3           = 1848–1863
| year_leader4           = 1863–1906
| title_leader           = King of Denmark, <small> Duke of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg </small>
| representative1        = [[Adam Wilhelm Moltke]]
| representative2        = [[Christian Albrecht Bluhme]]
| representative3        = [[Anders Sandøe Ørsted]]
| representative4        = [[Peter Georg Bang]]
| representative5        = [[Carl Christoffer Georg Andræ]]
| representative6        = [[Carl Christian Hall]]
| representative7        = [[Carl Edvard Rotwitt]]
| representative8        = [[Ditlev Gothard Monrad]]
| year_representative1   = 1848–1852
| year_representative2   = 1852–1853
| year_representative3   = 1853–1854
| year_representative4   = 1854–1856
| year_representative5   = 1856–1857
| year_representative6   = 1857–1859
| year_representative7   = 1859–1860
| year_representative8   = 1863–1864
| title_representative   = Prime ministers <br /> <small> (1848–1855) </small> <br /> <big> Council Presidents </big>  <br /> <small> (1855–1864) </small>
| deputy1                = 
| deputy2                = 
| year_deputy1           = 
| year_deputy2           = 
| title_deputy           = 
| footnotes              = 
}}
=== The Napoleonic Wars ===

[[File:The Battle of Copenhagen, 2 April 1801 RMG BHC0529.tiff|thumb|left|The Battle of Copenhagen, 1801.]]

The long decades of peace came to an abrupt end during the [[French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars]]. Denmark-Norway initially attempted to stay neutral in the ongoing conflict in order to maintain their trade with both France and Britain. However, British fears that the Dano-Norwegians would ally with France led to a [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)|naval battle]] outside of Copenhagen in 1801, in which a [[Royal Navy]] fleet delivered a crushing blow to the Dano-Norwegian navy. Despite this, Denmark-Norway continued to remain neutral until 1807, when a British fleet [[Battle of Copenhagen (1807)|bombarded Copenhagen]] and captured most of the Dano-Norwegian navy in order to prevent it from assisting [[Napoleon]] against Britain. This led to the [[Gunboat War]], in which Danish [[gunboat]]s fought against the British navy until 1814, though major engagements ended after the last Danish frigate was captured by the Royal Navy [[Battle of Lyngør|at Lyngør]] in 1812.

In 1809 Danish forces fighting on the French side participated in defeating the anti-Bonapartist German rebellion led by [[Ferdinand von Schill]], at the [[Battle of Stralsund (1809)|Battle of Stralsund]]. By 1813, Denmark could no longer bear the war costs, and the [[National bankruptcy|state was bankrupt]]. When in the same year the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]] isolated Denmark by clearing Northern Germany of French forces, [[Frederick VI of Denmark|Frederick VI]] had to make peace. Accordingly, the [[Treaty of Kiel]] was concluded in January 1814 with Sweden and Great Britain, and another peace was signed with Russia in February.

The post-Napoleonic [[Congress of Vienna]] demanded the dissolution of the Dano-Norwegian union, and this was confirmed by the [[Treaty of Kiel]] in 1814. The treaty transferred [[Heligoland]] to Great Britain and [[Norway]] from the Danish to the Swedish crown, Denmark was to be satisfied with [[Swedish Pomerania]]. But the [[Norway in 1814|Norwegians revolted]], declared their independence, and elected crown-prince Christian Frederick (the future [[Christian VIII of Denmark|Christian VIII]]) as their king. However, the Norwegian independence movement failed to attract any support from the European powers. After a brief war with Sweden, Christian had to abdicate in order to preserve Norwegian autonomy, established in a [[personal union]] with Sweden. In favour of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], Denmark renounced her claims to Swedish Pomerania at the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1815), and instead was satisfied with the [[Duchy of Lauenburg]] and a Prussian payment of 3.5 million talers. Prussia also took over a Danish 600,000-taler debt to Sweden.

This period also counts as "the Golden Age" of Danish [[intellectual history]]. A sign of renewed intellectual vigor was the introduction of compulsory schooling in 1814. Literature, painting, sculpture, and philosophy all experienced an unusually vibrant period. The stories of [[Hans Christian Andersen]] (1805–1875) became popular not only in Denmark, but all over Europe and in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hans Christian Andersen: Danish Writer and Citizen of the World | editor=Sven Hakon Rossel |year=1996 |publisher=Rodopi |pages=52–54 }}</ref> The ideas of the philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] (1813–1855) spread far beyond Denmark, influencing not only his own era, but proving instrumental in the development of new philosophical systems after him. The sculptures of [[Bertel Thorvaldsen|Thorvaldsen]] (1770–1834) grace public buildings all over Denmark and other artists appreciated and copied his style. [[N. F. S. Grundtvig|Grundtvig]] (1783–1872) tried to reinvigorate the Danish National Church and contributed to the hymns used by the church in Denmark.

=== Nationalism and liberalism ===
{{see also|History of Schleswig-Holstein}}
[[File:Grundlovgivende rigsforsamling - Constantin Hansen.jpg|thumb|''Den Grundlovgivende Rigsforsamling''<br /> The Constitutional Assembly created The [[Constitution of Denmark|Danish constitution]], 1860–1864 painting by [[Constantin Hansen]].]]
The Danish [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[nationalism|national]] movements gained momentum in the 1830s, and after the European revolutions of 1848 Denmark became a [[constitutional monarchy]] on 5 June 1849. The growing [[bourgeoisie]] had demanded a share in government, and in an attempt to avert the sort of bloody revolution occurring elsewhere in Europe, [[Frederick VII of Denmark|Frederick VII]] gave in to the demands of the citizens. A new constitution emerged, [[Separation of powers|separating the powers]] and granting the [[suffrage|franchise]] to all adult males, as well as freedom of the press, religion, and association. The king became head of the [[executive branch]]. The [[legislative branch]] consisted of two parliamentary chambers; the [[Folketing]], comprising members elected by the general population, and the [[Landsting (Denmark)|Landsting]], elected by landowners. Denmark also gained an independent [[judiciary]].

Another significant result of the revolution was the [[abolitionism|abolition of slavery]] in the [[Danish West Indies]], the Danish colony in the Caribbean, which at an earlier part of its history witnessed the biggest slave auctions in the world.<ref>Neville A.T. Hall, and B. W. Higman, ''Slave Society in the Danish West Indies: St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix'' (Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 1992).</ref> In 1845 Denmark's other tropical colony, [[Tranquebar]] in India, was sold to Britain.

The Danish king's realm still consisted of the islands, the northern half of the [[Jutland]] peninsula, and the [[Duchy of Schleswig]] in [[real union]] with the [[Duchy of Holstein]].

[[File:Første Infanteriregiment i Haandgemæng med Regimentet Martini.png|thumb|left|Danish Infantry regiment in a fight with regiment "Martini". Contemporary illustration of the 1864 [[Second Schleswig War]].]]
The islands and Jutland together constituted the kingdom, whereas the monarch held the duchies in [[personal union]] with the kingdom. The duchy of Schleswig constituted a Danish [[fief]], while the Duchy of Holstein remained a part of the [[German Confederation]].

Since the early 18th century, and even more so from the early 19th century, the Danes had become used to viewing the duchies and the kingdom as increasingly unified in one [[Sovereign state|state]]. This view, however, clashed with that of the German majority in the duchies, also enthused by liberal and national trends, which led to a movement known as Schleswig-Holsteinism. Schleswig-Holsteinists aimed for independence from Denmark. The [[First Schleswig War]] (1848–1851) broke out after constitutional change in 1849 and ended with the ''status quo'' because of the intervention of [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and other Great Powers.

Much debate took place in Denmark as to how to deal with the question of Schleswig-Holstein. National-Liberals demanded permanent ties between Schleswig and Denmark, but stated that Holstein could do as it pleased. However, international events overtook domestic Danish politics, and Denmark faced war against both [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]] in what became known as the [[Second Schleswig War]] (1864). The war lasted from February to October 1864. Denmark was easily beaten by Prussia and Austria, and obliged to relinquish both Schleswig and Holstein.

The war caused Denmark as a nation severe trauma, forcing it to reconsider its place in the world. The loss of Schleswig-Holstein came as the latest in the long series of defeats and territorial loss that had begun in the 17th century. The Danish state had now lost some of the richest areas of the kingdom: Skåne to Sweden and Schleswig to Germany, so the nation focused on developing the poorer areas of the country. Extensive agricultural improvements took place in Jutland, and a new form of nationalism, which emphasized the "small" people, the decency of rural Denmark, and the shunning of wider aspirations, developed.

=== Industrialisation ===
[[Industrialisation]] came to Denmark in the second half of the 19th century. The nation's first railroads were constructed in the 1850s, and improved communications and overseas trade allowed industry to develop in spite of Denmark's lack of natural resources. Trade unions developed starting in the 1870s. There was a considerable migration of people from the countryside to the cities.

Danish agriculture became centered around the export of dairy and meat products, especially to Great Britain. Instead of relying on German middlemen in Hamburg, the Danes opened new direct trade routes to England after the defeat by the Germans.<ref>Markus Lampe, and Paul Sharp, "How the Danes discovered Britain: the international integration of the Danish dairy industry before 1880." ''European Review of Economic History'' 19.4 (2015): 432-453 [Lampe, Markus, and Paul Sharp. "How the Danes discovered Britain: the international integration of the Danish dairy industry before 1880." European Review of Economic History 19.4 (2015): 432-453. online]. </ref>  Lampke and Sharp argue that Denmark's success as in the dairy industry was not based on co-operatives, which came in the late nineteenth century. Instead leadership was in the hands of the landed, intellectual and political elites. They made land reforms, adopted new technologies, and started educational and trading systems. Together these made Denmark a major exporter of butter after 1850. Land reform enabled the growth of a middle ranking class of farmers. They copied the innovations pioneered by wealthy estate owners, and implemented them through newly formed co-operatives.<ref>Markus Lampe, and Paul Sharp, '' A Land of Milk and Butter: How Elites Created the Modern Danish Dairy Industry'' (2018).</ref>

Internationalism and nationalism have become very much part of the history of the Danish [[Labour movement]]. The Labour movement gathered momentum when social issues became associated with internationalism. Socialist theory and organisational contact with the [[International Workingmen's Association|First International]], which linked labour movements in various countries, paved the way. [[Louis Pio]] emerged as the driving force. In 1871, following the bloody defeat of the [[Paris Commune]], he started publishing socialist journalism. He campaigned strongly for an independent organisation of the workers under their own management, and organised a Danish branch of the First International. This became the foundation stone for the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democratic Party]] under the name of ''Den Internationale Arbejderforening for Danmark'' (The International Labour Association for Denmark). As a combination of union and political party, it adroitly brought together national and international elements.<ref>Harald Lövaas, ''The trade union movement in Denmark'' (European Trade Union Institute, 1987).</ref>

Pio saw internationalism as vital for the success of the workers' struggle: without internationalism, no progress. He pointed out that the middle classes cooperated across national frontiers and used nationalistic rhetoric as a weapon against the workers and their liberation.<ref>Peder Tabor, "The Oldest Social-Democratic Press in the World." ''Gazette'' (Leiden, Netherlands) 9.2 (1963): 157–164.</ref>

The Danish section started organising strikes and demonstrations for higher wages and social reforms.<ref>David Greasley,  "A Tale of Two Peripheries: Real Wages in Denmark and New Zealand 1875–1939." ''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 54.2 (2006): 116–136.</ref> Demands were moderate, but enough to provoke the employers and the forces of [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]. Things came to a head in the Battle of [[Fælledparken|Fælleden]] on 5 May 1872. The authorities arrested the three leaders, Louis Pio, [[Poul Geleff]] and Harald Brix, charged them and convicted them of high treason. The three left Denmark for the United States to set up the ill-starred and short-lived socialist colony near Hays City, in [[Ellis County, Kansas]].

Back in Denmark, the emerging political situation made possible by the new Danish door of independence alarmed many of the existing elites, since it inevitably [[empowerment|empowered]] the peasantry. Simple men with little education replaced professors and professionals in positions of power. The peasants, in coalition with liberal and radical elements from the cities, eventually won a majority of seats in the Folketing. Even though constitutional changes had taken place to boost the power of the Landsting, the Left {{Lang|da|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]}} Party demanded to form the government, but the king, still the head of the executive branch, refused. However, in 1901, king [[Christian IX of Denmark|Christian IX]] gave in and asked [[Johan Henrik Deuntzer]], a member of Venstre, to form a government, the [[Cabinet of Deuntzer]]. This began a tradition of [[parliamentary government]], and with the exception of the [[Easter Crisis of 1920]], no government since 1901 has ruled against a parliamentary majority in the Folketing.

=== Monetary union ===
{{main|Scandinavian Monetary Union}}
[[File:Two 20kr gold coins.png|thumb|right|Two golden 20 kr coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which was based on a [[gold standard]]. The coin to the left is Swedish and the right one is Danish.]]

The [[Scandinavian Monetary Union]], a [[monetary union]] formed by Sweden and Denmark on 5 May 1873, fixed both their [[currency|currencies]] against [[gold standard|gold]] [[Par value|at par]] to each other. [[Norway]], governed in union with Sweden, entered the monetary union two years later in 1875 by pegging its currency to gold at the same level as Denmark and Sweden (.403&nbsp;gram).<ref>[http://www.nationalbanken.dk/dnuk/hist.nsf/side/From_silver_standard_to_gold_standard From silver standard to gold standard] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103214722/http://www.nationalbanken.dk/dnuk/hist.nsf/side/From_silver_standard_to_gold_standard |date=2013-11-03 }}, retrieved 2008-08-05</ref> The monetary union proved one of the few tangible results of the [[Scandinavist]] political movement of the 19th century.

The union provided fixed exchange-rates and stability in monetary terms, but the member-countries continued to issue their own separate currencies. In an outcome not initially foreseen, the perceived security led to a situation where the formally separate currencies circulated on a basis of "as good as" the [[legal tender]] virtually throughout the entire area.

The outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 brought an end to the monetary union. Sweden abandoned the tie to gold on 2 August 1914, and without a fixed exchange rate the free circulation came to an end.