Editing Fatimid Caliphate (section)

==Society==

=== Religious communities ===
Fatimid society was highly pluralistic. Isma'ili Shi'ism was the religion of the state and the caliph's court, but most of the population followed different religions or denominations. Most of the Muslim population remained Sunni, and a large part of the population remained Christian.<ref name=":452">{{Cite book |last1=Den Heijer |first1=Johannes |title=The World of the Fatimids |last2=Immerzeel |first2=Mat |last3=Boutros |first3=Naglaa Hamdi D. |last4=Makhoul |first4=Manhal |last5=Pilette |first5=Perrine |last6=Rooijakkers |first6=Tineke |publisher=Aga Khan Museum; The Institute of Ismaili Studies; Hirmer |year=2018 |isbn=978-1926473123 |editor-last=Melikian-Chirvani |editor-first=Assadullah Souren |location=Toronto; Munich |pages=190–217 |chapter=Christian Art and Culture}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Jews were a smaller minority.<ref name=":45">{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Paula |title=The World of the Fatimids |publisher=Aga Khan Museum; The Institute of Ismaili Studies; Hirmer |year=2018 |isbn=978-1926473123 |editor-last=Melikian-Chirvani |editor-first=Assadullah Souren |location=Toronto; Munich |pages=218–29 |chapter=Jewish Books in Fatimid Egypt}}</ref> As in other Islamic societies of the time, non-Muslims were classified as [[Dhimmi|''dhimmi''s]], a term which implied both certain restrictions and certain liberties, though the practical circumstances of this status varied from context to context. As elsewhere in the historic Muslim world, they were required to pay the ''[[jizya]]'' tax.<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|pages=194–95}} Scholars generally agree that, on the whole, Fatimid rule was highly tolerant and inclusive towards different religious communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fierro |first=Maribel |date=2015 |title=Dhimmīs in Fatimid Egypt: A View from the Islamic West |journal=Medieval Encounters: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue |volume=21 |issue=4–5 |pages=516–23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yarbrough |first=Luke |date=2019 |title=Medieval Sunni historians on Fatimid policy and non-Muslim influence |journal=Journal of Medieval History |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=331–46|doi=10.1080/03044181.2019.1612186 |s2cid=164922323 }}</ref><ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=195}}

Unlike western European governments of the era, advancement in Fatimid state offices was more [[meritocracy|meritocratic]] than hereditary.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance was extended to non-Muslims, such as Christians and Jews,<ref name="gold84" /> who occupied high levels in government based on ability, and this policy of tolerance ensured the flow of money from non-Muslims in order to finance the Caliphs' large army of [[Mamluks]] brought in from Circassia by Genoese merchants.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

There were exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, however, most notably by al-Hakim, though this has been highly debated, with Al-Hakim's reputation among medieval Muslim historians conflated with his role in the [[Druze|Druze faith]].<ref name="gold84" /> Christians in general and [[Persecution of Copts|Copts]] in particular were persecuted by Al-Hakim;<ref name="Robert Ousterhout 1989 pp. 66-78">Robert Ousterhout, "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre" in ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 48, No. 1 (March, 1989), pp. 66–78</ref><ref name="Saunders2002">{{cite book |author=John Joseph Saunders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109 |title=A History of Medieval Islam |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-93005-0 |pages=109– |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219082630/https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Rustow2014">{{cite book |author=Marina Rustow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219 |title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate |year=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2 |pages=219– |author-link=Marina Rustow |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916021910/https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Persecution of Christians|persecution of the Christians]] included closing and demolishing churches and [[forced conversion]] to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lyster |first=William |title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Pau |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-9774160936 |quote=Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=N. Swanson |first=Mark |title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641–1517) |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-9774160936 |page=54 |quote=By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...}}</ref><ref>ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.</ref> With the succession of Caliph al-Zahir, the [[Druze]] faced a mass persecution,<ref>{{cite book |last=Parsons |first=L. |title=The Druze between Palestine and Israel 1947–49 |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=978-0230595989 |page=2 |quote=With the succession of al-Zahir to the Fatimid caliphate a mass persecution (known by the Druze as the period of the ''mihna'') of the Muwaḥḥidūn was instigated ...}}</ref> which included large massacres against the Druze in Antioch, Aleppo, and other cities.<ref name="RebeccaE">{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Druze |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements |url=http://www.sacredtribesjournal.org/images/Encyclopedia/The_Druze.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518085757/http://www.sacredtribesjournal.org/images/Encyclopedia/The_Druze.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2015 |author=Rebecca Erickson |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Isma'ilis ====
{{Further|Isma'ilism}}
[[File:Al-Azhar 2019-11-02q.jpg|thumb|The original Fatimid-period [[mihrab]] inside the [[al-Azhar Mosque]]{{Sfn|O'Kane|2016|pp=11–14}}]]
It's unclear what number or percentage of the population inside the caliphate were actually Isma'ilis, but they always remained a minority.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=140}} Historical chronicles report large numbers of enthusiastic converts in Egypt during the reign of al-'Aziz, but this trend dropped significantly around the middle of al-Hakim's reign.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=140}} The Fatimid state promoted Isma'ili doctrine (the ''da'wa'') through a hierarchical organization. The Imam-Caliph, as successor to the Prophet Muhammad, was both the political and religious leader. Below the Imam-Caliph, the top of this hierarchy was headed by the ''da'i l-du'at'' or "supreme missionary".{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Newcomers to the doctrine were initiated by attending the ''majalis al-hikma'' ("Sessions of Wisdom"), lectures and lessons that were delivered in a special hall inside the palaces of Cairo. The doctrine was kept secret from those who were not initiated.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} Additionally, Isma'ili doctrines were disseminated through the lectures hosted at Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, which became an intellectual center hosting teachers and students.<ref name=":4532"/> Beyond the borders of the Fatimid Caliphate, recruitment to the ''da'wa'' continued to be performed in secret as it had been before the caliphate's establishment, though the many missionaries maintained contact with the leadership in Ifriqiya or Egypt.{{Sfn|Halm|2014}}{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=141}} Some of the ''da'i''s (missionaries) abroad sometimes came to Cairo and became important figures in the state, as with the example of [[Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani|al-Kirmani]] during al-Hakim's reign.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=143}}

Isma'ili unity was weakened over time by several schisms after the establishment of the caliphate (in addition to the Qarmatian schism before its establishment). The Druze, who believed in the divinity of Caliph al-Hakim, were suppressed in Egypt and elsewhere, but eventually found a home in the region of [[Mount Lebanon]].{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=143}} After the death of Caliph al-Mustansir, a succession crisis resulted in the breakaway of the Nizaris, who supported the claim of his oldest son Nizar, as opposed to the Musta'lis who supported the successful enthronement of al-Musta'li. The Nizaris were also suppressed inside the Caliphate's borders, but continued to be active outside it, mostly in Iran, Iraq, and parts of Syria.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|pp=148–49}} After the death of Caliph al-Amir, al-Hafiz, his cousin, successfully claimed the title of Imam-Caliph at the expense of al-Amir's infant son, al-Tayyib. Those who recognized al-Hafiz in Cairo were known as the al-Hafizi branch, but those who opposed this unusual succession and supported the succession of al-Tayyib were known as the al-Tayyibi branch. This particular schism resulted in the loss of Fatimid support in Yemen.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|pp=148–49}}

==== Other Muslims ====
In Ifriqiya, the Sunni Muslims of the cities largely followed the [[Maliki]] school or ''[[madhhab]]''. The Maliki school had become predominant here during the eighth century at the expense of the [[Hanafi]] school, which had generally been favoured by the Aghlabids.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=69}} In Egypt, the majority of Muslims were Sunni and remained so throughout the Fatimid period. Cognizant of this, the Fatimid authorities introduced Shi'a changes to religious rituals only gradually after Jawhar's conquest.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=139}} It was also in this era that the followers of the Hanafi, [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]], and Maliki schools were beginning to think of themselves collectively, to one extent or another, as Sunni, which undermined the universalism that the Shi'a Isma'ilis promoted.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=69}} Some Shi'as, including some [[Hasanids|Hasanid]] and [[Husaynids|Husaynid]] families, were also present in Egypt and welcomed the Fatimids as fellow Shi'as or as blood relatives, but without necessarily converting to Isma'ilism.{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=139}} Many non-Isma'ili Muslims also accepted the Fatimid caliphs as having legitimate rights to lead the Muslim community but did not accept the more absolute Shi'a beliefs in the concept of the [[Imamate]].{{Sfn|Walker|1998|p=139}}

==== Christians ====
[[File:Cairo, chiesa sospesa, interno, iconostasi.JPG|thumb|Side chapel in the [[Hanging Church]] in [[Old Cairo]], including [[fresco]]es (partly visible behind the screen here) dating from the late 12th or 13th century, before the church's later renovation<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last1=Gabra |first1=Gawdat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOxcBgAAQBAJ |title=The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque |last2=van Loon |first2=Gertrud J.M. |last3=Reif |first3=Stefan |last4=Swelim |first4=Tarek |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-9774167690 |editor-last=Ludwig |editor-first=Carolyn |pages=80–93 |editor-last2=Jackson |editor-first2=Morris |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916021908/https://books.google.com/books?id=UOxcBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Christians may have still constituted a majority of the population in Egypt during the Fatimid period, although scholarly estimates on this issue are tentative and vary between authors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brett |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sk6tAUL5ZWYC |title=Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras IV: Proceedings of the 9th and 10th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 2000 and May 2001 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-90-429-1524-4 |editor-last=Vermeulen |editor-first=Urbain |pages=1–32 |language=en |chapter=Population and Conversion to Islam in Egypt in the Mediaeval Period |editor-last2=Steenbergen |editor-first2=J. Van}}</ref><ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=194}} The proportion of Christians would have likely been greater in the rural population than in the main cities.<ref name=":452" /> Among Christians, the largest community were [[Copts]], followed by Melkite Christians.<ref name=":452" /> A large number of Armenian immigrants also arrived in Egypt during the late 11th and early 12th centuries when Armenian viziers like Badr al-Jamali dominated the state, which led to the Armenian church establishing a foothold in the country as well.<ref name=":452" />{{Sfn|Halm|2014}} In addition to churches in towns and cities, Christian [[Monastery|monasteries]] also dotted the countryside. Some regions, like [[Wadi El Natrun|Wadi al-Natrun]], were ancient centres of [[Coptic monasticism]].<ref name=":452" /> Italian traders, led by [[Amalfi]]tans, were also present in Fustat and Alexandria, moving goods between Egypt and the rest of the Mediterranean world.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|pp=93, 123–24}}

Within the Christian communities, and especially among Copts, there emerged a relatively affluent class of notables who served as scribes or administrators in the Fatimid regime. These [[Laity|laymen]] used their wealth to patronize, and in turn influence, their churches.<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|pages=198}} The state also had influence on the church, as demonstrated by the transfer of the Coptic Patriarchate from [[Alexandria]] to Fustat (specifically what is now [[Old Cairo]]) during the patriarchate of Cyril II (1078–1092), due to the demands of Badr al-Jamali, who wished for the Coptic pope to stay close to the capital.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=202}} The Church of the Virgin, now known as the [[Hanging Church]], became the new seat of the Patriarchate, along with an alternative church compound built on the upper floor of the [[Saint Mercurius Church in Coptic Cairo|St. Mercurius Church]]. Until the 14th century (when the seat was moved to the [[Church of the Virgin Mary (Haret Zuweila)|Church of the Virgin Mary in Harat Zuwayla]]), both churches were residences of the Coptic pope and served as venues for the consecrations of new popes and other important religious events.<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=202}}<ref name=":33" />

==== Jews ====
[[File:Leningrad Codex Folio 474a.jpg|thumb|Cover page of the [[Leningrad Codex]], a manuscript of the [[Hebrew Bible]] copied in Cairo/Fustat in the early 11th century<ref name=":45" />]]
Jewish communities existed across the territories under Fatimid control and also enjoyed a degree of self-governance.<ref name=":6" /> Although a smaller minority compared to Christians and Muslims, their history is relatively well documented thanks to the [[Cairo Geniza|Genizah documents]].<ref name=":45" /> The community was divided between [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbanites]] and [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]].<ref name=":45" /> Traditionally, up until the late 11th century, the most powerful head of the Jewish community was the ''ga'on'' or leader of the ''[[yeshiva]]'' of Jerusalem, who appointed judges and other Jewish community officials across the region. The Fatimids formally charged the ''ga'on'' of Jerusalem with responsibilities as representative of the community.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Mark R. |title=Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt: The Origins of the Office of the Head of the Jews, ca. 1065–1126 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0691615424}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Rustow |first=Marina |date=2021 |title=Jews and the Fāṭimid Caliphate |journal=Al-Masāq |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=169–87|doi=10.1080/09503110.2021.1899548 |s2cid=237271659 }}</ref> By 1100, however, a new position was established by Egyptian Jews in Fustat, known as the "Head of the Jews" or as the ''nagid''. This official in the Egyptian capital became recognized afterward as the head and representative of the Jewish community in its dealings with the Fatimid state. This shift was likely due to the Jerusalem ''ga'on''<nowiki/>'s own loss of influence and to the Jewish community's engagement with the centralizing politics that Badr al-Jamali pursued around this time (which had already resulted in the transfer of the Coptic Patriarchate to Fustat).<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

=== Language ===
Religious diversity notwithstanding, the spread of Arabic as the main language of the population had already progressed rapidly before the Fatimid period. In parts of Egypt, Copts and possibly also some Muslim communities were still speaking [[Coptic language|Coptic]] when the Fatimids arrived on the scene. It is during the Fatimid period, however, that Coptic religious culture began to be translated into Arabic. By the end of the Fatimid period (12th century), many Coptic Christians could no longer understand the Coptic language, and eventually its usage was reduced to a [[Sacred language|liturgical language]].<ref name=":452" />{{Rp|page=194}}