Editing Demosthenes (section)

==Notes==
{{Timeline of Demosthenes' life}}
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'''a.''' {{Note label|A|a|none}} According to Edward Cohen, professor of Classics at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], Cleoboule was the daughter of a Scythian woman and of an Athenian father, Gylon, although other scholars insist on the genealogical purity of Demosthenes.<ref name="Cohen76">E. Cohen, ''The Athenian Nation'', 76.</ref> There is an agreement among scholars that Cleoboule was a [[Crimea]]n and not an Athenian citizen.<ref>E. Cohen, ''The Athenian Nation'', 76; "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.</ref> Gylon had suffered banishment at the end of the [[Peloponnesian War]] for allegedly betraying [[Nymphaion (Crimea)|Nymphaeum]] in Crimaea.<ref>E. M. Burke, ''The Looting of the Estates of the Elder Demosthenes,'' 63.</ref> According to Aeschines, Gylon received as a gift from the [[Bosporan Kingdom|Bosporan]] rulers a place called "the Gardens" in the colony of [[Kepoi]] in present-day Russia (located within two miles (3&nbsp;km) of [[Phanagoria]]).<ref name="AischIII171" /> Nevertheless, the accuracy of these allegations is disputed, since more than seventy years had elapsed between Gylon's possible treachery and Aeschines' speech, and, therefore, the orator could be confident that his audience would have no direct knowledge of events at Nymphaeum.<ref>D. Braund, "The Bosporan Kings and Classical Athens", 200.</ref>

'''b.''' {{Note label|B|b|none}} According to Tsatsos, the trials against the guardians lasted until Demosthenes was twenty-four.<ref>K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 86.</ref> Nietzsche reduces the time of the judicial disputes to five years.<ref name="Nietzsche65">F. Nietzsche, ''Lessons of Rhetoric'', 65.</ref>

'''c.''' {{Note label|C|c|none}} According to the tenth century encyclopedia [[Suda]], Demosthenes studied with [[Eubulides of Miletus|Eubulides]] and Plato.<ref>Suda, article [http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&page_num=1&user_list=LIST&searchstr=Demosthenes&field=hw_eng&num_per_page=25&db=REAL Demosthenes.]</ref> Cicero and Quintilian argue that Demosthenes was Plato's disciple.<ref name="Cicero">Cicero, ''Brutus'', [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml#121 121] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629101345/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml |date=29 June 2011 }}; Quintilian, ''Institutiones'', XII, 2.[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#2 22.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060329123247/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml |date=29 March 2006 }}</ref> Tsatsos and the philologist [[Henri Weil]] believe that there is no indication that Demosthenes was a pupil of Plato or Isocrates.<ref name="Tsatsos84">K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 84; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 10–11.</ref> As far as Isaeus is concerned, according to Jebb "the school of Isaeus is nowhere else mentioned, nor is the name of any other pupil recorded".<ref name="Jebb" /> Peck believes that Demosthenes continued to study under Isaeus for the space of four years after he had reached his majority.<ref name="Thurston" />

'''d.''' {{Note label|D|d|none}}"Batalus" or "Batalos" meant "stammerer" in ancient Greek, but it was also the name of a flute-player (in ridicule of whom Antiphanes wrote a play) and of a songwriter.<ref name="Pl4">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4 4.4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520151820/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* D. Hawhee, ''Bodily Arts'', 156.</ref> The word "batalus" was also used by the Athenians to describe the [[anus]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4 4.4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520151820/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* M. L. Rose, ''The Staff of Oedipus'', 57.</ref> In fact the word actually defining his speech defect was "Battalos", signifying someone with rhotacism, but it was crudely misrepresented as "Batalos" by the enemies of Demosthenes and by Plutarch's time the original word had already lost currency.<ref>H. Yunis, ''Demosthenes: On the Crown'', 211 (note 180).</ref> Another nickname of Demosthenes was "Argas." According to Plutarch, this name was given him either for his savage and spiteful behaviour or for his disagreeable way of speaking. "Argas" was a poetical word for a snake, but also the name of a poet.<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D5 4.5.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155031/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D5 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

'''e.''' {{Note label|E|e|none}} Both Tsatsos and Weil maintain that Demosthenes never abandoned the profession of the logographer, but, after delivering his first political orations, he wanted to be regarded as a statesman. According to James J. Murphy, Professor emeritus of Rhetoric and Communication at the [[University of California, Davis]], his lifelong career as a logographer continued even during his most intense involvement in the political struggle against Philip.<ref name="Tsatsos90">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Demosthenes|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2002}}; K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 90; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demothenes'', 17.</ref>

'''f.''' {{Note label|F|f|none}} "Theorika" were allowances paid by the state to poor Athenians to enable them to watch dramatic festivals. According to Libanius, Eubulus passed a law making it difficult to divert public funds, including "theorika," for minor military operations.<ref name="Romilly116-117" /> E. M. Burke argues that, if this was indeed a law of Eubulus, it would have served "as a means to check a too-aggressive and expensive interventionism [...] allowing for the controlled expenditures on other items, including construction for defense". Thus Burke believes that in the Eubulan period, the Theoric Fund was used not only as allowances for public entertainment but also for a variety of projects, including public works.<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 175, 185.</ref> As Burke also points out, in his later and more "mature" political career, Demosthenes no longer criticised "theorika"; in fact, in his ''Fourth Philippic'' (341–340&nbsp;BC), he defended theoric spending.<ref>Demosthenes, ''Fourth Philippic'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070%3Aspeech%3D10%3Asection%3D35 35–45] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520143140/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070%3Aspeech%3D10%3Asection%3D35 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 188.</ref>

'''g.''' {{Note label|G|g|none}} In the ''Third Olynthiac'' and in the ''Third Philippic'', Demosthenes characterised Philip as a "barbarian", one of the various abusive terms applied by the orator to the king of Macedon.<ref name="OlynthiacIII16,24">Demosthenes, ''Third Olynthiac'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Olynthiac III#3:16|16]] and [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Olynthiac III#3:24|24]]; Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:31|31]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 13; I. Worthington, ''Alexander the Great'', 21.</ref> According to Konstantinos Tsatsos and [[Douglas M. MacDowell]], Demosthenes regarded as Greeks only those who had reached the cultural standards of south Greece and he did not take into consideration ethnological criteria.<ref name="Tsatsos258">D.M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 13<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 258.</ref> His contempt for Philip is forcefully expressed in the ''Third Philippic'' 31 in these terms: "...he is not only no Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that can be named with honour, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it was never yet possible to buy a decent slave." The wording is even more telling in Greek, ending with an accumulation of plosive pi sounds: {{lang|grc|οὐ μόνον οὐχ Ἕλληνος ὄντος οὐδὲ προσήκοντος οὐδὲν τοῖς Ἕλλησιν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ βαρβάρου ἐντεῦθεν ὅθεν καλὸν εἰπεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὀλέθρου Μακεδόνος, ὅθεν οὐδ᾽ ἀνδράποδον σπουδαῖον οὐδὲν ἦν πρότερον πρίασθαι.}}<ref>J. H. Vince, ''Demosthenes'' I, 242–243.</ref> Nevertheless, Philip, in his letter to the council and people of Athens, mentioned by Demosthenes, places himself "with the rest of the Greeks".<ref>Demosthenes, ''Philip's Letter to Athenians'', Speeches, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0072%3Aspeech%3D12%3Asection%3D1 12.6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104174632/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0072%3Aspeech%3D12%3Asection%3D1 |date=4 November 2020 }}: "This is the most amazing exploit of all; for, before the king [Artaxerxes III] reduced Egypt and Phoenicia, you passed a decree calling on me to make common cause with the rest of the Greeks against him, in case he attempted to interfere with us".</ref>

'''h.''' {{Note label|H|h|none}} Aeschines maintained that Demosthenes was bribed to drop his charges against Meidias in return for a payment of thirty [[mina (unit)|mnai]]. Plutarch argued that Demosthenes accepted the bribe out of fear of Meidias's power.<ref name="AischIII52Pl">Aeschines, ''Against Ctesiphon'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D52 52] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155104/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D52 |date=20 May 2012 }}; Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 12.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D12%3Asection%3D2 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155135/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D12%3Asection%3D2 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* E.M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", 118.</ref> [[Philipp August Böckh]] also accepted Aeschines's account for an out-of-court settlement, and concluded that the speech was never delivered. Böckh's position was soon endorsed by Arnold Schaefer and Blass. Weil agreed that Demosthenes never delivered ''Against Meidias'', but believed that he dropped the charges for political reasons. In 1956, [[Hartmut Erbse]] partly challenged Böckh's conclusions, when he argued that ''Against Meidias'' was a finished speech that could have been delivered in court, but Erbse then sided with [[George Grote]], by accepting that, after Demosthenes secured a judgment in his favour, he reached some kind of settlement with Meidias. [[Kenneth Dover]] also endorsed Aeschines's account, and argued that, although the speech was never delivered in court, Demosthenes put into circulation an attack on Meidias. Dover's arguments were refuted by Edward M. Harris, who concluded that, although we cannot be sure about the outcome of the trial, the speech was delivered in court, and that Aeschines' story was a lie.<ref name="Weil28">E.M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", ''passim''; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 28.</ref>

'''i.''' {{Note label|I|i|none}} According to Plutarch, Demosthenes deserted his colours and "did nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable to his speeches".<ref name="Pl20">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 20; Pseudo-Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 845ff.</ref>

'''j.''' {{Note label|J|j|none}} Aeschines reproached Demosthenes for being silent as to the seventy talents of the king's gold which he allegedly seized and embezzled. Aeschines and [[Dinarchus]] also maintained that when the Arcadians offered their services for ten talents, Demosthenes refused to furnish the money to the Thebans, who were conducting the negotiations, and so the Arcadians sold out to the Macedonians.<ref name="Dinarchus">Aeschines, ''Against Ctesiphon'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D239 239–240] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520110431/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D239 |date=20 May 2012 }}; Dinarcus, ''Against Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0082%3Aspeech%3D1%3Asection%3D18 18–21.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155059/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0082%3Aspeech%3D1%3Asection%3D18 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

'''k.''' {{Note label|K|k|none}} The exact chronology of Harpalus's entrance into Athens and of all the related events remains a debated topic among modern scholars, who have proposed different, and sometimes conflicting, chronological schemes.<ref>I. Apostolidis, note 1219 ''in'' J.G. Droysen, ''History of Alexander the Great'', 719–720; J. Engels, ''Hypereides'', 308–313; I. Worthington, ''Harpalus Affair'', ''passim''.</ref>

'''l.''' {{Note label|L|l|none}} According to [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], Demosthenes himself and others had declared that the orator had taken no part of the money that Harpalus brought from Asia. He also narrates the following story: Shortly after Harpalus ran away from Athens, he was put to death by the servants who were attending him, though some assert that he was assassinated. The steward of his money fled to Rhodes, and was arrested by a Macedonian officer, [[Philoxenus (general)|Philoxenus]]. Philoxenus proceeded to examine the slave, "until he learned everything about such as had allowed themselves to accept a bribe from Harpalus." He then sent a dispatch to Athens, in which he gave a list of the persons who had taken a bribe from Harpalus. "Demosthenes, however, he never mentioned at all, although Alexander held him in bitter hatred, and he himself had a private quarrel with him."<ref name="Pausanias">Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'', 2.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D33%3Asection%3D4 33.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155046/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D33%3Asection%3D4 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> On the other hand, Plutarch believes that Harpalus sent Demosthenes a cup with twenty talents and that "Demosthenes could not resist the temptation, but admitting the present, ... he surrendered himself up to the interest of Harpalus."<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D4 25.4.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520160751/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D4 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> Tsatsos defends Demosthenes's innocence, but Irkos Apostolidis underlines the problematic character of the primary sources on this issue—Hypereides and Dinarchus were at the time Demosthenes's political opponents and accusers—and states that, despite the rich bibliography on Harpalus's case, modern scholarship has not yet managed to reach a safe conclusion on whether Demosthenes was bribed or not.<ref>I. Apostolidis, note 1229 (with further references), ''in'' J. G. Droysen, ''History of Alexander the Great'', 725; K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 307–309.</ref>

'''m.''' {{Note label|M|m|none}} Blass disputes the authorship of the following speeches: ''Fourth Philippic'', ''Funeral Oration'', ''Erotic Essay,'' ''Against Stephanus 2'' and ''Against Evergus and Mnesibulus'',<ref name="Blass2">F. Blass, ''Die attische Beredsamkeit'', III, 1, 404–406 and 542–546.</ref> while Schaefer recognises as genuine only twenty-nine orations.<ref name="Schaefer">A. Schaefer, ''Demosthenes und seine Zeit'', III, 111, 178, 247 and 257; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 66–67.</ref> Of Demosthenes's corpus political speeches,  J. H. Vince singles out five as spurious: ''On Halonnesus'', ''Fourth Philippic'', ''Answer to Philip's Letter'', ''On Organization'' and ''On the Treaty with Alexander''.<ref>J. H. Vince, ''Demosthenes Orations'', 268, 317, 353, 463.</ref>

'''n.''' {{Note label|N|n|none}}  In this discussion the work of Jonathan A. Goldstein, Professor of History and Classics at the [[University of Iowa]], is regarded as paramount.<ref>F. J. Long, ''Ancient Rhetoric and Paul's Apology'', 102; M. Trap, ''Greek and Latin Letters'', 12.</ref> Goldstein regards Demosthenes's letters as authentic apologetic letters that were addressed to the Athenian Assembly.<ref>J. A. Goldstein, ''The Letters of Demosthenes'', 93.</ref>
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