Editing Copula (linguistics) (section)

=== Haitian Creole ===
[[Haitian Creole language|Haitian Creole]], a [[French-based creole language]], has three forms of the copula: {{lang|ht|se}}, {{lang|ht|ye}}, and the [[zero copula]], no word at all (the position of which will be indicated with ''Ø'', just for purposes of illustration).

Although no textual record exists of Haitian-Creole at its earliest stages of development from French, {{lang|ht|se}} is derived from French {{IPA|fr|se|}} (written {{lang|fr|c'est}}), which is the normal French contraction of {{IPA|fr|sə|}} (that, written {{lang|fr|ce}}) and the copula {{IPA|fr|e|}} (is, written {{lang|fr|est}}) (a form of the verb {{lang|fr|être}}).

The derivation of {{lang|ht|ye}} is less obvious; but we can assume that the French source was {{IPA|fr|ile|}} ("he/it is", written {{lang|fr|il est}}), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly pronounced as {{IPA|fr|je|}} (typically written {{lang|fr|y est}}).

The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it is thought to be an innovation from the early days when Haitian-Creole was first developing as a Romance-based [[pidgin]]. Latin also sometimes used a zero copula.

Which of {{lang|ht|se}}/{{lang|ht|ye}}/Ø is used in any given copula clause depends on complex syntactic factors that we can superficially summarize in the following four rules:

1. Use ''Ø'' (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences where the complement is an adjective phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb phrase:

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=1a)
|Li te Ø an Ayiti.
|she PAST COP in Haiti.
| "She was in Haiti."}}

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=1b)
|Liv-la Ø jon.
|book-the COP yellow.
| "The book is yellow."}}
{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=1c)
| Timoun-yo Ø lakay.
| Kids-the COP home.
| "The kids are [at] home."}}

2. Use {{lang|ht|se}} when the complement is a noun phrase. But, whereas other verbs come after any tense/mood/aspect particles (such as {{lang|ht|pa}} to mark negation, or {{lang|ht|te}} to explicitly mark past tense, or {{lang|ht|ap}} to mark progressive aspect), {{lang|ht|se}} comes before any such particles:

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=2a)
|Chal se ekriven.
|Charles is writer.
|"Charles is a writer."}}

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=2b)
| Chal, ki se ekriven, pa vini.
| Charles, who is writer, not come.
|}}

3. Use {{lang|ht|se}} where French and English have a [[dummy pronoun|dummy "it"]] subject:

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=3a)|glossing2=no|lang2=fr
| Se mwen!
| C'est moi!
| "It's me!"
|}}

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=3b)|glossing2=no|lang2=fr
| Se pa fasil.
| C'est pas facile.
| "It's not easy"
|}}

4. Finally, use the other copula form {{lang|ht|ye}} in situations where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end of a phrase:

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=4a)
| Kijan ou ye?
| how 2SG be?
| "How you are?"}}

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=4b)
| Pou kimoun liv-la te ye?
| Of who book-the PAST be?
| "Whose book was it?"}}

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=4c)
| M pa konnen kimoun li ye.
| I not know who he is.
| "I don't know who he is."}}

{{interlinear|lang=ht|number=4d)|lang2=fr|glossing2=no
| Se yon ekriven Chal ye.
| C'est un écrivain Charles est.
| Be a writer Charles be.
| "Charles is a ''writer''!"}}

The above is, however, only a simplified analysis.<ref>[[#Howe90|Howe 1990]]. Source for most of the Haitian data in this article; for more details on syntactic conditions as well as Haitian-specific copula constructions, such as {{lang|ht|se kouri m ap kouri}} (It's run I ''progressive'' run; "I'm really running!"), see the grammar sketch in this publication.</ref><ref>[[#Vald88|Valdman & Rosemond 1988]].</ref>