Editing Copper (section)

==Applications==
{{See also| Copper in renewable energy}}
[[File:Kupferfittings 4062.jpg|thumb|Copper fittings for soldered plumbing joints]] [[File:Very large copper seal end cap.jpg|thumb|A very large copper seal end cap]]
The major applications of copper are electrical wire (60%), roofing and plumbing (20%), and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is used mostly as a pure metal, but when greater hardness is required, it is put into such alloys as [[brass]] and [[bronze]] (5% of total use).<ref name="emsley" /> For more than two centuries, copper paint has been used on boat hulls to control the growth of plants and shellfish.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boatus.com/magazine/2012/february/copper.asp|title=Is Copper Bottom Paint Sinking?|website=BoatUS Magazine|author=Ryck Lydecker|access-date=2016-06-03|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801090801/https://www.boatus.com/magazine/2012/february/copper.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> A small part of the copper supply is used for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture.<ref name="Boux" /><ref name="Applications for Copper">{{cite web|title = Copper|publisher = [[American Elements]]|date = 2008|url = http://www.americanelements.com/cu.html|access-date = 12 July 2008|archive-date = 8 June 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080608225006/http://www.americanelements.com/cu.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> [[Machining]] of copper is possible, although alloys are preferred for good [[machinability]] in creating intricate parts.

===Wire and cable===
{{Main| Copper wire and cable}}

Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred [[electrical conductor]] in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead [[electric power transmission]] where [[aluminium]] is often preferred.<ref>Pops, Horace, 2008, "Processing of wire from antiquity to the future", ''Wire Journal International'', June, pp. 58–66</ref><ref>The Metallurgy of Copper Wire, http://www.litz-wire.com/pdf%20files/Metallurgy_Copper_Wire.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901142501/http://www.litz-wire.com/pdf%20files/Metallurgy_Copper_Wire.pdf |date=1 September 2013 }}</ref> Copper wire is used in [[power generation]], [[power transmission]], [[power distribution]], [[telecommunications]], [[electronics]] circuitry, and countless types of [[electrical equipment]].<ref>Joseph, Günter, 1999, Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, edited by Kundig, Konrad J.A., ASM International, pp. 141–192 and pp. 331–375.</ref> [[Electrical wiring]] is the most important market for the copper industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemistryexplained.com/elements/C-K/Copper.html |title=Copper, Chemical Element – Overview, Discovery and naming, Physical properties, Chemical properties, Occurrence in nature, Isotopes |publisher=Chemistryexplained.com |access-date=16 October 2012}}</ref> This includes structural power wiring, power distribution cable, appliance wire, communications cable, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors.<ref>Joseph, Günter, 1999, Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, edited by Kundig, Konrad J.A., ASM International, p.348</ref> Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high [[electrical conductivity]], [[tensile strength]], [[ductility]], [[creep (deformation)]] resistance, [[corrosion]] resistance, low [[thermal expansion]], high [[thermal conductivity]], ease of [[solder]]ing, [[malleability]], and ease of installation.

For a short period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s, copper wiring was replaced by [[aluminium wiring]] in many housing construction projects in America. The new wiring was implicated in a number of house fires and the industry returned to copper.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.heimer.com/Inspection-Information/Aluminum-Wiring.html|title=Aluminum Wiring Hazards and Pre-Purchase Inspections.|website=www.heimer.com|access-date=2016-06-03|archive-date=28 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528104324/http://www.heimer.com/Inspection-Information/Aluminum-Wiring.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Electronics and related devices===
[[File:Busbars.jpg|thumb|left|Copper electrical [[busbar]]s distributing power to a large building]]
[[Integrated circuit]]s and [[printed circuit board]]s increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity; [[heat sink]]s and [[heat exchanger]]s use copper because of its superior heat dissipation properties. [[Electromagnet]]s, [[vacuum tube]]s, [[cathode-ray tube]]s, and [[magnetron]]s in microwave ovens use copper, as do [[waveguide]]s for microwave radiation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Accelerator: Waveguides (SLAC VVC)|url=http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/accelerators/waveguide.html|work=SLAC Virtual Visitor Center|access-date=29 April 2011|archive-date=7 February 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207181019/http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/accelerators/waveguide.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Electric motors===

Copper's superior [[Copper wire and cable#Electrical conductivity|conductivity]] enhances the efficiency of electrical [[motor (device)|motors]].<ref>IE3 energy-saving motors, Engineer Live, http://www.engineerlive.com/Design-Engineer/Motors_and_Drives/IE3_energy-saving_motors/22687/</ref> This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for 43–46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.<ref>Energy‐efficiency policy opportunities for electric motor‐driven systems, International Energy Agency, 2011 Working Paper in the Energy Efficiency Series, by Paul Waide and Conrad U. Brunner, OECD/IEA 2011</ref> Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a [[Inductor|coil]] increases the efficiency of the motor. [[Induction motor|Copper motor rotors]], a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives,<ref>Fuchsloch, J. and E.F. Brush, (2007), "Systematic Design Approach for a New Series of Ultra‐NEMA Premium Copper Rotor Motors", in EEMODS 2007 Conference Proceedings, 10–15 June, Beijing.</ref><ref>Copper motor rotor project; Copper Development Association; {{cite web|url=http://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/motor-rotor |title=Copper.org: Copper Motor Rotor Project |access-date=2012-11-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313102458/http://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/motor-rotor |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> are enabling general-purpose [[induction motor]]s to meet and exceed [[National Electrical Manufacturers Association]] (NEMA) [[premium efficiency]] standards.<ref>NEMA Premium Motors, The Association of Electrical Equipment and Medical Imaging Manufacturers; {{cite web|url=http://www.nema.org/gov/energy/efficiency/premium/ |title=NEMA – NEMA Premium Motors |access-date=2009-10-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402081307/http://www.nema.org/gov/energy/efficiency/premium/ |archive-date=2 April 2010}}</ref>

=== Renewable energy production ===
{{Excerpt|Copper in renewable energy}}

===Architecture===
{{Main|Copper in architecture}}
[[File:Minneapolis City Hall.jpg|thumb|Copper roof on the [[Minneapolis City Hall]], coated with [[patina]]]]
[[File:Copper utensils Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant]]
[[File:Large copper bowl. Dhankar Gompa.jpg|thumb|Large copper bowl. [[Dhankar Gompa]].]]
Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable, [[corrosion resistance|corrosion resistant]], and weatherproof architectural material.<ref>Seale, Wayne (2007). The role of copper, brass, and bronze in architecture and design; ''Metal Architecture'', May 2007</ref><ref>Copper roofing in detail; Copper in Architecture; Copper Development Association, U.K., www.cda.org.uk/arch</ref><ref>Architecture, European Copper Institute; http://eurocopper.org/copper/copper-architecture.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009005711/http://eurocopper.org/copper/copper-architecture.html |date=9 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>Kronborg completed; Agency for Palaces and Cultural Properties, København, {{cite web|url=http://www.slke.dk/en/slotteoghaver/slotte/kronborg/kronborgshistorie/kronborgfaerdigbygget.aspx?highlight%3Dcopper |title=Kronborg completed – Agency for Palaces and Cultural Properties |access-date=2012-09-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024101854/http://www.slke.dk/en/slotteoghaver/slotte/kronborg/kronborgshistorie/kronborgfaerdigbygget.aspx?highlight=copper |archive-date=24 October 2012}}</ref> [[Roofing material|Roofs]], [[flashing (weatherproofing)|flashings]], [[rain gutter]]s, [[downspout]]s, [[dome]]s, [[spire]]s, vaults, and [[door]]s have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years. Copper's architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior [[Copper in architecture#Wall cladding|wall cladding]], building [[expansion joint]]s, [[RF shielding|radio frequency shielding]], and [[Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces|antimicrobial]] and decorative indoor products such as attractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some of copper's other important benefits as an architectural material include low [[thermal expansion|thermal movement]], light weight, [[lightning rod|lightning protection]], and recyclability.

The metal's distinctive natural green [[patina]] has long been coveted by architects and designers. The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering.<ref>{{cite web|last = Berg|first = Jan|title = Why did we paint the library's roof?|url = http://www.deforest.lib.wi.us/FAQS.htm|access-date = 20 September 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070625065039/http://www.deforest.lib.wi.us/FAQS.htm |archive-date = 25 June 2007}}</ref><ref>Architectural considerations; Copper in Architecture Design Handbook, http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_dhb/fundamentals/arch_considerations.htm{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Peters, Larry E. (2004). Preventing corrosion on copper roofing systems; Professional Roofing, October 2004, http://www.professionalroofing.net</ref> It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wepanknowledgecenter.org/c/document_library/get_file?folderId%3D517%26name%3DDLFE-2454.pdf |title=Oxidation reaction: Why is the Statue of Liberty blue-green? How does rust work?|first=Chun|last=Wu|publisher=Engage Engineering|website=wepanknowledgecenter.org |access-date=2013-10-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025094519/http://www.wepanknowledgecenter.org/c/document_library/get_file?folderId=517&name=DLFE-2454.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0010-938X(98)00093-6 |title=The chemistry of copper patination |date=1998 |last1=Fitzgerald |first1=K.P. |last2=Nairn |first2=J. |last3=Atrens |first3=A. |journal=Corrosion Science |volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=2029–50|bibcode=1998Corro..40.2029F }}</ref><ref>Application Areas: Architecture – Finishes – patina; http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/finishes.html</ref><ref>Glossary of copper terms, Copper Development Association (UK): {{cite web|url=http://www.copperinfo.co.uk/resources/glossary.shtml |title=Glossary of copper terms |access-date=2012-09-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820053020/http://www.copperinfo.co.uk/resources/glossary.shtml |archive-date=20 August 2012 }}</ref> Architectural copper and its alloys can also be [[Copper in architecture#Finishes|'finished']] to take on a particular look, feel, or color. Finishes include mechanical surface treatments, chemical coloring, and coatings.<ref>Finishes – natural weathering; Copper in Architecture Design Handbook, Copper Development Association Inc., {{cite web|url=http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_dhb/finishes/finishes.html |title=Copper.org: Architecture Design Handbook: Finishes |access-date=2012-09-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016080539/http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_dhb/finishes/finishes.html |archive-date=16 October 2012 }}</ref>

Copper has excellent [[brazing]] and [[soldering]] properties and can be [[welded]]; the best results are obtained with [[gas metal arc welding]].<ref>{{cite book|author = Davis, Joseph R. |title = Copper and Copper Alloys|pages = 3–6, 266|publisher = ASM International|date = 2001|isbn = 978-0-87170-726-0}}</ref>

===Antibiofouling===
{{Main|Copper alloys in aquaculture|Copper sheathing}}
Copper is [[biostatic]], meaning bacteria and many other forms of life will not grow on it. For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against [[barnacle]]s and [[mussel]]s. It was originally used pure, but has since been superseded by [[Muntz metal]] and copper-based paint. Similarly, as discussed in [[copper alloys in aquaculture]], copper alloys have become important netting materials in the [[aquaculture]] industry because they are [[antimicrobial]] and prevent [[biofouling]], even in extreme conditions<ref name="autogenerated1995">Edding, Mario E., Flores, Hector, and Miranda, Claudio, (1995), Experimental Usage of Copper-Nickel Alloy Mesh in Mariculture. Part 1: Feasibility of usage in a temperate zone; Part 2: Demonstration of usage in a cold zone; Final report to the International Copper Association Ltd.</ref> and have strong structural and [[corrosion-resistant]]<ref>[http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/pdf/marine_aquaculture.pdf Corrosion Behaviour of Copper Alloys used in Marine Aquaculture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924070759/http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/pdf/marine_aquaculture.pdf |date=24 September 2013 }}. (PDF) . copper.org. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.</ref> properties in marine environments.

===Antimicrobial===
{{Main|Antimicrobial properties of copper|Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces}}

[[Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces|Copper-alloy touch surfaces]] have natural properties that destroy a wide range of [[microorganisms]] (e.g., ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' O157:H7, [[methicillin]]-resistant ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' ([[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|MRSA]]), ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', ''[[Clostridium difficile (bacteria)|Clostridium difficile]]'', [[influenza A virus]], [[Adenoviridae|adenovirus]], [[SARS-CoV-2]], and [[Fungus|fungi]]).<ref name="Copper Touch Surfaces">[http://coppertouchsurfaces.org/antimicrobial/bacteria/index.html Copper Touch Surfaces] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723235812/http://www.coppertouchsurfaces.org/antimicrobial/bacteria/index.html |date=23 July 2012 }}. Copper Touch Surfaces. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=10 February 2021|title=EPA Registers Copper Surfaces for Residual Use Against Coronavirus|url=https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-registers-copper-surfaces-residual-use-against-coronavirus|access-date=11 October 2021|website=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref> Indians have been using copper vessels since ancient times for storing water, even before modern science realized its antimicrobial properties.<ref name="Montero-2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Montero|first1=David A.|last2=Arellano|first2=Carolina|last3=Pardo|first3=Mirka|last4=Vera|first4=Rosa|last5=Gálvez|first5=Ricardo|last6=Cifuentes|first6=Marcela|last7=Berasain|first7=María A.|last8=Gómez|first8=Marisol|last9=Ramírez|first9=Claudio|last10=Vidal|first10=Roberto M.|date=2019-01-05|title=Antimicrobial properties of a novel copper-based composite coating with potential for use in healthcare facilities|journal=Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control|volume=8|issue=1|pages=3|doi=10.1186/s13756-018-0456-4|issn=2047-2994|pmc=6321648|pmid=30627427 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% of disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly.<ref name="US EPA-2008">{{Cite web|date=May 2008|title=EPA registers copper-containing alloy products|url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/copper-alloy-products.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929135757/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/copper-alloy-products.htm|archive-date=29 September 2015|website=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref> The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as "[[antimicrobial]] materials with public health benefits";<ref name="US EPA-2008" /> that approval allows manufacturers to make legal claims to the public health benefits of products made of registered alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys, such as bedrails, [[handrails]], over-bed tables, [[sinks]], [[faucets]], [[door knobs]], [[toilet]] hardware, [[computer keyboards]], [[health club]] equipment, and [[shopping cart]] handles. Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and [[Legionnaires' disease]] is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Biurrun|first1=Amaya|last2=Caballero|first2=Luis|last3=Pelaz|first3=Carmen|last4=León|first4=Elena|last5=Gago|first5=Alberto|s2cid=32388649|title=Treatment of a Legionella pneumophila-Colonized Water Distribution System Using Copper-Silver Ionization and Continuous Chlorination|journal=Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology|date=1999|volume=20|issue=6|pages=426–428|doi=10.1086/501645|jstor=30141645|pmid=10395146|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0709/96484f04d87e7c7858448f3d913a94b720c0.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217195047/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0709/96484f04d87e7c7858448f3d913a94b720c0.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-02-17}}</ref> Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil, as well as being called for in the US,<ref>Zaleski, Andrew, ''[https://www.statnews.com/2020/09/24/as-hospitals-look-to-prevent-infections-a-chorus-of-researchers-make-a-case-for-copper-surfaces/ As hospitals look to prevent infections, a chorus of researchers make a case for copper surfaces]'', STAT, 24 September 2020</ref> and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper–zinc alloy handrails were installed in some 30 stations between 2011 and 2014.<ref>[http://www.rail.co/2011/07/22/chilean-subway-protected-with-antimicrobial-copper Chilean subway protected with Antimicrobial Copper – Rail News from] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724105812/http://www.rail.co/2011/07/22/chilean-subway-protected-with-antimicrobial-copper/ |date=24 July 2012 }}. rail.co. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.</ref><ref>[http://construpages.com.ve/nl/noticia_nl.php?id_noticia=3032&language=en Codelco to provide antimicrobial copper for new metro lines (Chile)] {{dead link|date=September 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. Construpages.com.ve. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.antimicrobialcopper.com/media/149689/pr811-chilean-subway-installs-antimicrobial-copper.pdf PR 811 Chilean Subway Installs Antimicrobial Copper] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123100624/http://www.antimicrobialcopper.com/media/149689/pr811-chilean-subway-installs-antimicrobial-copper.pdf |date=23 November 2011 }}. (PDF). antimicrobialcopper.com. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.</ref>
Textile fibers can be blended with copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics.<ref>{{cite web |title= Copper and Cupron |publisher=Cupron |url=http://www.cupron.com/cupron-technology/power-of-cupron/copper-and-cupron}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=November 2013}}


===Folk medicine===
Copper is commonly used in jewelry, and according to some folklore, copper bracelets relieve [[arthritis]] symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=961545 |date=1976 |last1=Walker |first1=W.R. |last2=Keats |first2=D.M. |title=An investigation of the therapeutic value of the 'copper bracelet'-dermal assimilation of copper in arthritic/rheumatoid conditions |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=454–459 |journal=Agents and Actions}}</ref> In one trial for osteoarthritis and one trial for rheumatoid arthritis, no differences were found between copper bracelet and control (non-copper) bracelet.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Richmond SJ, Gunadasa S, Bland M, Macpherson H |title=Copper bracelets and magnetic wrist straps for rheumatoid arthritis – analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects: a randomised double-blind placebo controlled crossover trial |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=e71529 |year=2013 |pmid=24066023 |pmc=3774818 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0071529 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...871529R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="RichmondBrown2009">{{cite journal|last1=Richmond|first1=Stewart J.|last2=Brown|first2=Sally R.|last3=Campion|first3=Peter D.|last4=Porter|first4=Amanda J.L.|last5=Moffett|first5=Jennifer A. Klaber|last6=Jackson|first6=David A.|last7=Featherstone|first7=Valerie A.|last8=Taylor|first8=Andrew J.|title=Therapeutic effects of magnetic and copper bracelets in osteoarthritis: A randomised placebo-controlled crossover trial|journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine|volume=17|issue=5–6|year=2009|pages=249–256|issn=0965-2299|doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2009.07.002|pmid=19942103|url=http://researchrepository.napier.ac.uk/id/eprint/9912}}</ref> No evidence shows that copper can be absorbed through the skin. If it were, it might lead to [[Copper toxicity|copper poisoning]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uams.edu/update/absolutenm/templates/medical.asp?articleid=3454|title=Find the Truth Behind Medical Myths|publisher=University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences|date=6 January 2014|archive-date=6 January 2014|
archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106233901/http://www.uams.edu/update/absolutenm/templates/medical.asp?articleid=3454|quote=While it's never been proven that copper can be absorbed through the skin by wearing a bracelet, research has shown that excessive copper can result in poisoning, causing vomiting and, in severe cases, liver damage.}}</ref>