Editing Camouflage (section)

== Applications ==

=== Military ===

{{main|Military camouflage|List of military clothing camouflage patterns}}

==== Before 1800 ====

[[File:Museum für Antike Schifffahrt, Mainz 02. Spritsail.jpg|thumb|Roman ships, depicted on a 3rd-century AD [[sarcophagus]] ]]

Ship camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times. [[Philostratus]] ({{Circa|172–250 AD}}) wrote in his ''[[Imagines (work by Philostratus)|Imagines]]'' that Mediterranean pirate ships could be painted blue-gray for concealment.{{sfn|Casson|1995|pages=211–212}} [[Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus|Vegetius]] ({{circa|360–400&nbsp;AD}}) says that "Venetian blue" (sea green) was used in the [[Gallic Wars]], when [[Julius Caesar]] sent his ''speculatoria navigia'' (reconnaissance boats) to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain; the ships were painted entirely in bluish-green wax, with sails, ropes and crew the same colour.{{sfn|Casson|1995|page=235}} There is little evidence of military use of camouflage on land before 1800, but two unusual ceramics show men in [[Peru]]'s [[Mochica]] culture from before 500&nbsp;AD, hunting birds with blowpipes which are fitted with a kind of shield near the mouth, perhaps to conceal the hunters' hands and faces.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jett |first=Stephen C. |date=March 1991 |title=Further Information on the Geography of the Blowgun and Its Implications for Early Transoceanic Contacts |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=89–102 |jstor=2563673 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1991.tb01681.x}}</ref> Another early source is a 15th-century French manuscript, ''The Hunting Book of Gaston Phebus'', showing a horse pulling a cart which contains a hunter armed with a crossbow under a cover of branches, perhaps serving as a hide for shooting game.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Crossbow |url=https://archive.org/details/TheCrossbowMediaevalAndModern |publisher=Longmans, Green |last=Payne-Gallwey |first=Ralph |year=1903 |page=[https://archive.org/details/TheCrossbowMediaevalAndModern/page/n43 11]}}</ref> [[Jamaican Maroons]] are said to have used plant materials as camouflage in the [[First Maroon War]] ({{circa|1655–1740}}).<ref>{{cite book |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas |title=The People of the Caribbean: An Encyclopedia of Archaeology and Traditional Culture |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO}}</ref>

==== 19th-century origins ====

[[File:Green jacketed rifleman firing Baker rifle 1803.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)|Green-jacketed rifleman]] firing [[Baker rifle]] 1803]]

The development of military camouflage was driven by the increasing range and accuracy of infantry firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate [[musket]] with weapons such as the [[Baker rifle]] made personal concealment in battle essential. Two [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic War]] skirmishing units of the [[British Army]], the [[Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)|95th Rifle Regiment]] and the 60th Rifle Regiment, were the first to adopt camouflage in the form of a [[rifle green]] jacket, while the Line regiments continued to wear scarlet tunics.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haythornthwaite |first=P. |title=British Rifleman 1797–1815 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2002 |page=20 |isbn=978-1841761770}}</ref> A contemporary study in 1800 by the English artist and soldier [[Charles Hamilton Smith]] provided evidence that grey uniforms were less visible than green ones at a range of 150 yards.{{sfn|Newark|2007|page=43}}

In the [[American Civil War]], rifle units such as the 1st United States Sharp Shooters (in the [[Union (American Civil War)|Federal]] army) similarly wore green jackets while other units wore more conspicuous colours.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historynet.com/killers-in-green-coats.htm |title=Killers in Green Coats |publisher=Weider History Group |date=20 February 2008 |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> The first British Army unit to adopt [[khaki (colour)|khaki]] uniforms was the [[Corps of Guides (British India)|Corps of Guides]] at [[Peshawar]], when [[Harry Burnett Lumsden|Sir Harry Lumsden]] and his second in command, [[William Stephen Raikes Hodson|William Hodson]] introduced a "drab" uniform in 1848.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Khaki Uniform 1848–49: First Introduction by Lumsden and Hodson |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |year=2004 |volume=82 |issue=Winter |pages=341–347}}</ref> Hodson wrote that it would be more appropriate for the hot climate, and help make his troops "invisible in a land of dust".<ref>{{cite book |title=Twelve Years of a Soldier's Life in India, being extracts from the letters of the late Major WSR Hodson |publisher=John W. Parker and Son |last=Hodson |first=W. S. R. |editor=Hodson, George H. |year=1859 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t14m94h66;view=1up;seq=9}}</ref> Later they improvised by dyeing cloth locally. Other regiments in India soon adopted the khaki uniform, and by 1896 [[khaki drill]] uniform was used everywhere outside Europe;<ref>{{cite book |last=Barthorp |first=Michael |title=The British Army on Campaign 1816–1902 |volume=4 |issue=1882–1902 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year= 1988 |isbn=978-0-85045-849-7 |pages=24–33}}</ref> by the [[Second Boer War]] six years later it was used throughout the British Army.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chappell |first=M. |title=The British Army in World War I (1) |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2003 |page=37 |isbn=978-1-84176-399-6}}</ref>

During the late 19th century camouflage was applied to British coastal fortifications.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barrass |first1=S |date=2018 |title=British Military Camouflage Prior to 1914 |journal=Casemate |issue=111 |pages=34–42 |publisher=[[Fortress Study Group]] |issn=1367-5907 }}</ref> The fortifications around Plymouth, England were painted in the late 1880s in "irregular patches of red, brown, yellow and green."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=JF |date=1890 |title=Permanent Fortification for English Engineers |publisher=The Royal Engineers Institute |page=280 }}</ref> From 1891 onwards British coastal artillery was permitted to be painted in suitable colours "to harmonise with the surroundings"<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Details of Equipment of Her Majesty's Army Part 2 Section XI B – Garrison Artillery |publisher=War Office |date=1891 }}</ref> and by 1904 it was standard practice that artillery and mountings should be painted with "large irregular patches of different colours selected to suit local conditions."<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Regulations for the equipment of the army. Part 2. section XII (a) |publisher=War Office |date=1904 }}</ref>

==== First World War ====

{{further|list of camoufleurs}}

[[File:Andre Mare Camouflaged Iron Observation Tree (The Elm at Vermezeele) 1916.jpg|thumb|upright|Iron observation post camouflaged as a tree by [[Cubism|Cubist]] painter [[André Mare]], 1916]]

In the [[First World War]], the French army formed a camouflage corps, led by [[Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola]],<ref name=LRB>{{cite journal |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n12/patrick-wright/cubist-slugs |title=Cubist Slugs |last=Wright |first=Patrick |journal=[[London Review of Books]] |date=23 June 2005 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=16–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Guirand de Scévola |first=Lucien-Victor |title=Souvenir de Camouflage (1914–1918) |journal=Revue des Deux Mondes |date=December 1949 |language=fr |author-link=Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola}}</ref> employing artists known as ''[[List of camoufleurs|camoufleurs]]'' to create schemes such as tree observation posts and covers for guns. Other armies soon followed them.{{sfn|Forbes|2009|pages=104–105}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Art of the First World War: André Mare and Leon Underwood |work=The Elm at Vermezeele |publisher=Memorial-Caen |year=1998 |url=http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/027text.html |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529001851/http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/027text.html |archive-date=29 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Art of the First World War: André Mare |publisher=Memorial-Caen |year=1998 |url=http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/008text.html |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528220115/http://www.memorial-caen.fr/10EVENT/EXPO1418/gb/texte/008text.html |archive-date=28 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The term ''[[wikt:camouflage|camouflage]]'' probably comes from ''camoufler'', a [[Paris]]ian slang term meaning ''to disguise'', and may have been influenced by ''camouflet'', a [[French language|French]] term meaning ''smoke blown in someone's face''.<ref name=camouflet>{{cite web |title=Camouflage |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |year=2012 |url=http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=camouflage&allowed_in_frame=0 |access-date=8 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Camouflage, n |work=Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/26737?isAdvanced=false&result=1&rskey=2NawDO&|access-date=8 February 2013}}</ref> The English zoologist [[John Graham Kerr]], artist Solomon J. Solomon and the American artist Abbott Thayer led attempts to introduce scientific principles of countershading and disruptive patterning into military camouflage, with limited success.{{sfn|Forbes|2009|pages=85–89}}<ref>For Solomon, see BBC Radio 4 programme "Warpaint: the story of camouflage" by Patrick Wright, August 2002 (repeated Radio 4 Extra, 17 June 2014).</ref> In early 1916 the [[Royal Naval Air Service]] began to create dummy air fields to draw the attention of enemy planes to empty land. They created decoy homes and lined fake runways with flares, which were meant to help protect real towns from night raids. This strategy was not common practice and did not succeed at first, but in 1918 it caught the Germans off guard multiple times.<ref>{{cite book |title=Camouflage and Art Design for Deception in World War 2 |last=Goodden |first=Henrietta |publisher=Unicorn Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-906290-87-3 |location=London, England |pages=12–13}}</ref>

[[Ship camouflage]] was introduced in the early 20th century as the range of naval guns increased, with ships painted grey all over.<ref name=Sumrall/><ref>{{cite web |last=Prinzeugen |title=Schnellboot: An Illustrated Technical History |work=Prinz Eugen |url=http://www.prinzeugen.com/colors.htm |access-date=5 March 2012 |archive-date=19 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919134326/http://www.prinzeugen.com/colors.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> In April 1917, when German [[U-boats]] were sinking many British ships with torpedoes, the marine artist [[Norman Wilkinson (artist)|Norman Wilkinson]] devised [[dazzle camouflage]], which paradoxically made ships more visible but harder to target.<ref>{{cite news |work=The Times |title=Obituary: Mr Norman Wilkinson, Inventor of 'dazzle' painting |date=1 June 1971 |page=12}}</ref> In Wilkinson's own words, dazzle was designed "not for low visibility, but in such a way as to break up her form and thus confuse a submarine officer as to the course on which she was heading".<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Norman |author-link=Norman Wilkinson (artist) |title=A Brush with Life |publisher=Seeley Service |year=1969 |page=79}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="150px" widths="150px">
File:USS West Mahomet (ID-3681) cropped.jpg|USS ''West Mahomet'' in dazzle camouflage
File:CamouflagedAustralian9.2inchHowitzerYpres1917.jpeg|[[BL 9.2-inch howitzer|Siege howitzer]] camouflaged against observation from the air, 1917
File:Austro-Hungarian ski patrol on Italian front in snow camouflage 1915-1918.jpg|Austro-Hungarian ski patrol in two-part snow uniforms with improvised head camouflage on Italian front, 1915–1918
</gallery>

==== Second World War ====

{{further|list of camoufleurs|World War II ship camouflage measures of the United States Navy|German World War II camouflage patterns}}

In the [[Second World War]], the zoologist Hugh Cott, a [[protégé]] of Kerr, worked to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage methods, including countershading, but, like Kerr and Thayer in the First World War, with limited success. For example, he painted two rail-mounted coastal guns, one in conventional style, one [[Countershading|countershaded]]. In aerial photographs, the countershaded gun was essentially invisible.{{sfn|Forbes|2009|pages=149–150}} The power of aerial observation and attack led every warring nation to camouflage targets of all types. The [[Soviet Union]]'s [[Red Army]] created the comprehensive [[military doctrine|doctrine]] of ''[[Russian military deception|Maskirovka]]'' for military deception, including the use of camouflage.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keating |first=Kenneth C. |url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a112903.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519040222/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a112903.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=19 May 2014 |title=Maskirovka: The Soviet System of Camouflage |publisher=U.S. Army Russian Institute |year=1981 |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> For example, during the [[Battle of Kursk]], [[Mikhail Katukov|General Katukov]], the commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army, remarked that the enemy "did not suspect that our well-camouflaged tanks were waiting for him. As we later learned from prisoners, we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed". The tanks were concealed in previously prepared defensive emplacements, with only their turrets above ground level.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kursk: the greatest battle |publisher=Headline Review |last=Clark |first=Lloyd |year=2011 |page=278 |isbn=978-0-7553-3639-5}}</ref> In the air, Second World War fighters were often painted in ground colours above and sky colours below, attempting two different camouflage schemes for observers above and below.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Robert L. |title=Fighter Combat: Tactics and Maneuvering |year=1985 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-0-87021-059-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/fightercombattac00shaw }}</ref> Bombers and night fighters were often black,<ref>Stephenson, Hubert Kirk (1948). ''Applied Physics'', pp. 200, 258. Volume 6 of Science in World War II; Office of Scientific Research and Development. Editors: Chauncey Guy Suits and George Russell Harrison. Little, Brown.</ref> while maritime reconnaissance planes were usually white, to avoid appearing as dark shapes against the sky.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tinbergen |first=Niko |author-link=Niko Tinbergen |title=The Herring Gull's World |publisher=Collins |year=1953 |page=14 |isbn=978-0-00-219444-0 |quote=white has proved to be the most efficient concealing coloration for aircraft on anti-submarine patrol}}</ref> For ships, dazzle camouflage was mainly replaced with plain grey in the Second World War, though experimentation with colour schemes continued.<ref name=Sumrall/>

As in the First World War, artists were pressed into service; for example, the surrealist painter [[Roland Penrose]] became a lecturer at the newly founded Camouflage Development and Training Centre at [[Farnham Castle]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.farnhamcastle.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=79&Itemid=133 |work=Farnham Castle |title=World War II|access-date=8 February 2013}}</ref> writing the practical ''Home Guard Manual of Camouflage''.{{sfn|Forbes|2009|pages =151–152}} The film-maker [[Geoffrey Barkas]] ran the [[Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate]] during the 1941–1942 war in the Western Desert, including the successful deception of [[Operation Bertram]]. Hugh Cott was chief instructor; the artist camouflage officers, who called themselves ''[[camoufleurs]]'', included [[Steven Sykes (artist)|Steven Sykes]] and [[Tony Ayrton]].{{sfn|Barkas|1952|pages=154, 186–188}}{{sfn|Forbes|2009|pages=156–166}} In Australia, artists were also prominent in the Sydney Camouflage Group, formed under the chairmanship of Professor [[William John Dakin]], a zoologist from Sydney University. [[Max Dupain]], [[Sydney Ure Smith]], and [[William Dobell]] were among the members of the group, which worked at [[Bankstown Airport]], [[RAAF Base Richmond]] and Garden Island Dockyard.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mellor |first=D. P. |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 4 – Civil |volume=5 |title=The Role of Science and Industry |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |year=1958 |page=538ff}}</ref> In the United States, artists like [[John Vassos]] took a certificate course in military and industrial camouflage at the [[American School of Design]] with Baron Nicholas Cerkasoff, and went on to create camouflage for the Air Force.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shapiro |first=Danielle |title=John Vassos: Industrial Design for Modern Life |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-8166-9341-2 |page=183}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="150px" widths="150px">
File:Catalina Góraszka 2008 204.JPG|Maritime patrol [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|Catalina]], painted white to minimise visibility against the sky
File:SS Platanenmuster Sommer.jpg|1937 summer variant of [[Waffen SS]] ''[[Flecktarn]]'' Plane tree pattern
File:USS Duluth (CL-87) underway in Hampton Roads on 10 October 1944 (NH 98363).jpg|[[USS Duluth (CL-87)|USS ''Duluth'']] in naval camouflage Measure 32, Design 11a, one of many dazzle schemes used on warships
File:Spitfire.planform.arp.jpg|A [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire's]] underside 'azure' paint scheme, meant to hide it against the sky
<!--File:Mitchell 180 Sqn RAF in especially camouflaged hangar Belgium 1944.jpg-->
File:Royal Air Force 1939-1945- Fighter Command CL3979.jpg|A [[Luftwaffe]] aircraft hangar built to resemble a street of village houses, Belgium, 1944
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E0406-0022-001, Russland, Kesselschlacht Stalingrad.jpg|[[Red Army]] soldiers in the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in [[snow camouflage]] overalls, January 1943
</gallery>

==== After 1945 ====

{{further|List of camouflage patterns}}

Camouflage has been used to protect military equipment such as vehicles, guns, [[Ship camouflage|ships]],<ref name=Sumrall>{{cite journal |last=Sumrall |first=R. F. |title=Ship Camouflage (WWII): Deceptive Art |journal=United States Naval Institute Proceedings |date=February 1973 |pages=67–81}}</ref> [[Aircraft camouflage|aircraft]] and buildings<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.smithsonianconference.org/climate/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/ConcealmentCamouflageDeception.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614033015/http://www.smithsonianconference.org/climate/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/ConcealmentCamouflageDeception.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-14 |url-status=live |title=Concealment, Camouflage, and Deception |magazine=Smithsonian |access-date=16 June 2012 |pages=1–4}}</ref> as well as individual soldiers and their positions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm3-21-75.pdf|title=FM 21–75 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926093542/https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm3-21-75.pdf| archive-date=26 September 2021|work=Chapter 5: Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage |access-date=11 June 2023 |publisher=Department of the Army}}</ref>
Vehicle camouflage methods begin with paint, which offers at best only limited effectiveness. Other methods for stationary land vehicles include covering with improvised materials such as blankets and vegetation, and erecting nets, screens and soft covers which may suitably reflect, scatter or absorb [[near infrared]] and [[radar]] waves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.enlistment.us/field-manuals/series-2/FM21_305/TOC.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117031813/http://library.enlistment.us/field-manuals/series-2/FM21_305/TOC.PDF |archive-date=2015-11-17 |url-status=live |title=FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306 |work=Chapter 20: Vehicle Camouflage And Nuclear, Biological, And Chemical Operations |access-date=16 June 2012 |pages=1–9 |publisher=Department of the Army}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/milmanual-fm-5-103-survivability |title=5–103 |work=Appendix D: Camouflage |access-date=17 June 2012 |publisher=Department of the Army}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armedforces-int.com/suppliers/multispectral-camouflage.html |title=SSZ Camouflage |publisher=Military Suppliers & News |year=2012 |access-date=17 June 2012}}</ref> Some military textiles and vehicle camouflage paints also reflect infrared to help provide concealment from [[image intensification|night vision]] devices.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Color Stability of Olive Drab Infrared-Reflecting Camouflage Finishes |author1=Jukkola, E. E. |author2=Cohen, R. |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |year=1946 |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=927–930 |doi=10.1021/ie50441a019}}</ref>
After the Second World War, radar made camouflage generally less effective, though coastal boats are sometimes painted like land vehicles.<ref name=Sumrall/> [[Aircraft camouflage]] too came to be seen as less important because of radar, and aircraft of different air forces, such as the Royal Air Force's [[English Electric Lightning|Lightning]], were often uncamouflaged.<ref>{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Doug |title=Stealth Warplanes: Deception, Evasion, and Concealment in the Air |publisher=MBI Publishing, Zenith Press |year=2001 |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/118487425/Stealth-Warplanes |isbn=978-0-7603-1051-9 |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407064050/https://www.scribd.com/doc/118487425/Stealth-Warplanes |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Many [[List of camouflage patterns|camouflaged textile patterns]] have been developed to suit the need to match [[Battledress|combat clothing]] to different kinds of terrain (such as woodland, snow, and desert).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_853_pfanner.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813082353/http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_853_pfanner.pdf |archive-date=2011-08-13 |url-status=live |title=Military uniforms and the law of war |last=Pfanner |first=Toni |journal=IRRC |date=March 2004 |volume=86 |issue=853 |pages=99–100 |doi=10.1017/s1560775500180113|s2cid=144589400 }}</ref> The design of a pattern effective in all terrains has proved elusive.<ref name=US-Army>{{cite book |title=FM 21–76 US Army Survival Manual |publisher= Department of the Army |url=https://archive.org/details/Fm21-76SurvivalManual |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Photosimulation Camouflage Detection Test |year=2009 |publisher=U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center |page=27 |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/19823845/Photosimulation-Camouflage-Detection-Test|access-date=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref name=Brayley>{{cite book |last=Brayley |first=Martin J |title=Camouflage uniforms: international combat dress 1940–2010 |year=2009 |publisher=Crowood |isbn=978-1-84797-137-1}}</ref> The American [[Universal Camouflage Pattern]] of 2004 attempted to suit all environments, but was withdrawn after a few years of service.<ref>{{cite news |last=Freedberg |first=S. J. Jr. |title=Army drops universal camouflage after spending billions |url=http://defense.aol.com/2012/06/25/army-drops-universal-camouflage-after-spending-billions |access-date=27 September 2012 |newspaper=AOL Defence |date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831104046/http://defense.aol.com/2012/06/25/army-drops-universal-camouflage-after-spending-billions/ |archive-date=31 August 2012}}</ref> Terrain-specific patterns have sometimes been developed but are ineffective in other terrains.<ref>{{cite web |last=Davies |first=W. |title=Berlin Brigade Urban Paint Scheme |url=http://www.emlra.org/index.php/articles/berlin-brigade-urban-paint-scheme |work=Newsletter |publisher=Ex-Military Land Rover Association |access-date=25 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312155920/http://www.emlra.org/index.php/articles/berlin-brigade-urban-paint-scheme |archive-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The problem of making a pattern that works at different ranges has been solved with multiscale designs, often with a pixellated appearance and designed digitally, that provide a [[fractal]]-like range of patch sizes so they appear disruptively coloured both at close range and at a distance.<ref>{{cite web |last=Craemer |first=Guy |title=Dual Texture – U.S. Army digital camouflage |url=http://www.uniteddynamics.com/dualtex |publisher=United Dynamics |access-date=27 September 2012}}</ref> The first genuinely digital camouflage pattern was the Canadian Disruptive Pattern ([[CADPAT]]), issued to the army in 2002, soon followed by the American Marine pattern ([[MARPAT]]). A pixellated appearance is not essential for this effect, though it is simpler to design and to print.<ref>{{cite news |last=Engber |first=D. |title=Lost in the Wilderness, the military's misadventures in pixellated camouflage |orig-year=2007 |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2012/07/camouflage_problems_in_the_army_the_ucp_and_the_future_of_digital_camo_.single.html |access-date=27 September 2012 |date=5 July 2012}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="150px" widths="150px">
File:CADPAT digital camouflage pattern (Temperate Woodland variant).jpg|[[CADPAT]] was the first [[pixellated]] [[digital camouflage]] pattern to be issued, in 2002.
File:British dpm2.jpg|British [[Disruptive Pattern Material]], issued to [[Special forces#United Kingdom|special forces]] in 1963 and universally by 1968
File:M05 snow pattern.jpg|2007 2-colour snow variant of [[Finnish Defence Forces]] [[M05]] pattern
File:Pla camo.svg|Main (4-colour woodland) variant of Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] [[Type 99 (camouflage)|Type 99]] pattern, {{Circa|2006}}<!--date of photo; [http://camopedia.org/index.php?title=China Camopedia says "around 1999"]-->
File:Flecktarn.jpg|Modern German [[Flecktarn]] 1990, developed from a 1938 pattern, a non-digital pattern which works at different distances
File:Six-Color Desert Pattern.jpg|US "Chocolate Chip" [[Six-Color Desert Pattern]] developed in 1962, widely used in [[Gulf War]]
</gallery>

=== Hunting ===

[[File:Deer blind.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[hunting blind|hide]] used in [[field sports]]]]

Hunters of game have long made use of camouflage in the form of materials such as animal skins, mud, foliage, and green or brown clothing to enable them to approach wary game animals.{{sfn|Newark|2007|page=38}} [[Field sports]] such as [[driven grouse shooting]] conceal hunters in [[hunting blind|hides]] (also called blinds or shooting butts).<ref name=Blakeley2012>{{cite book |last=Blakeley |first=Peter F. |title=Wingshooting |publisher=Stackpole Books |year=2012 |pages=116, 125 |isbn=978-0-8117-0566-0}}</ref> Modern hunting clothing makes use of fabrics that provide a disruptive camouflage pattern; for example, in 1986 the hunter Bill Jordan created cryptic clothing for hunters, printed with images of specific kinds of vegetation such as grass and branches.{{sfn|Newark|2007|pages=48, 50}}

=== Civil structures ===

[[File:Camouflaged Microwave Cell Telephone Tower.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.6|Cellphone tower disguised as a tree]]

Camouflage is occasionally used to make built structures less conspicuous: for example, in [[South Africa]], towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches, in response to "resistance from the community". Since this method is costly (a figure of three times the normal cost is mentioned), alternative forms of camouflage can include using neutral colours or familiar shapes such as cylinders and flagpoles. Conspicuousness can also be reduced by siting masts near, or on, other structures.<ref>{{cite book |last=du Plessis |first=A. |title=Telecommunication Mast Management Guidelines for the City of Tshwane |publisher=[[City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality]] |date=3 July 2002 |url=http://www.tshwane.gov.za/AboutTshwane/CityManagement/CityDepartments/CorporateandSharedServices/legalservices/_layouts/mobile/view.aspx?List=1c67d863-b080-497c-b5e6-5f737c9debda&View=01d8646a-31ab-4506-a31d-76c75e245307&RootFolder=%2FAboutTshwane%2FCityManagement%2FCityDepartments%2FCorporateandSharedServices%2Flegalservices%2FPolicies%20Listing%2FTelkom%20Mast&ViewMode=Detail}}</ref>

Automotive manufacturers often use patterns to disguise upcoming products. This camouflage is designed to obfuscate the vehicle's visual lines, and is used along with padding, covers, and decals. The patterns' purpose is to prevent visual observation (and to a lesser degree photography), that would subsequently enable reproduction of the vehicle's form factors.<ref>{{cite news |title=The secrets behind all that camouflage |url=http://www.autonews.com/article/20150512/BLOG06/150519967/the-secrets-behind-all-that-camouflage |newspaper=Automotive News |access-date=28 July 2015 |date=12 May 2015}}</ref>

=== Fashion, art and society ===

[[File:Dazzle camouflage costume ball.PNG|thumb|The "dazzle ball" held by the Chelsea Arts Club, 1919|alt=1919 dazzle ball costumes]]

Military camouflage patterns influenced [[Fashion design|fashion]] and [[art]] from the time of the First World War onwards. [[Gertrude Stein]] recalled the [[cubism|cubist]] artist [[Pablo Picasso]]'s reaction in around 1915:

{{Blockquote|I very well remember at the beginning of the war being with Picasso on the boulevard Raspail when the first camouflaged truck passed. It was at night, we had heard of camouflage but we had not seen it and Picasso amazed looked at it and then cried out, yes it is we who made it, that is cubism.|Gertrude Stein in ''From Picasso'' (1938)<ref>{{cite web |author=[[Gertrude Stein|Stein, Gertrude]] |translator=[[Alice B. Toklas|Toklas, Alice B.]] |title=Picasso |publisher=Scribners |year=1939 |url=http://faculty.dwc.edu/wellman/Stein-Picasso.html |access-date=31 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201234007/http://faculty.dwc.edu/wellman/Stein-Picasso.html |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

In 1919, the attendants of a "dazzle ball", hosted by the Chelsea Arts Club, wore dazzle-patterned black and white clothing. The ball influenced fashion and art via postcards and magazine articles.{{sfn|Forbes|2009|page=100}} The ''[[Illustrated London News]]'' announced:{{sfn|Forbes|2009|page=100}}<ref>{{cite news |work=Illustrated London News |title=The Great Dazzle Ball at the Albert Hall: The Shower of Bomb Balloons and Some Typical Costumes |date=22 March 1919 |issue=154 |pages=414–415}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|The scheme of decoration for the great fancy dress ball given by the Chelsea Arts Club at the Albert Hall, the other day, was based on the principles of "Dazzle", the method of "camouflage" used during the war in the painting of ships&nbsp;... The total effect was brilliant and fantastic.}}

More recently, fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs, its "patterned disorder" and its symbolism.<ref name="Galliano at Museum">{{cite web |url=http://www3.fitnyc.edu/museum/loveandwar/galliano.htm |title=Love and War: The Weaponized Woman |publisher=The Museum at FIT |work=John Galliano for Christian Dior, silk camouflage evening dress |date=9 September – 16 December 2006 |access-date=1 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212085814/http://www3.fitnyc.edu/museum/loveandwar/galliano.htm |archive-date=12 December 2012}}</ref> Camouflage clothing can be worn largely for its symbolic significance rather than for fashion, as when, during the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States, [[opposition to the Vietnam War|anti-war protestors]] often ironically wore military clothing during demonstrations against the American involvement in the Vietnam War.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.warmuseum.ca/media/news/the-story-of-camouflage-told-at-the-canadian-war-museum-this-summer/ |title=Camouflage: The Exhibition |publisher=Canadian War Museum |date=5 June 2009 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref>

Modern artists such as [[Ian Hamilton Finlay]] have used camouflage to reflect on war. His 1973 screenprint of a tank camouflaged in a leaf pattern, ''Arcadia'',{{efn|See [[Ian Hamilton Finlay#Art]].}} is described by the [[Tate gallery|Tate]] as drawing "an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank".<ref name="IanHF-Tate">{{cite web |url=http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/hamilton-finlay-arcadia-collaboration-with-george-oliver-p07025 |title=Ian Hamilton Finlay: Arcadia (collaboration with George Oliver) |publisher=Tate |work=Arcadia, 1973 |date=July 2008 |access-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> The title refers to the [[Utopia]]n [[Arcadia (utopia)|Arcadia]] of poetry and art, and the ''[[memento mori]]'' [[Latin phrase]] ''Et in Arcadia ego'' which recurs in Hamilton Finlay's work. In [[science fiction]], ''[[Camouflage (novel)|Camouflage]]'' is a novel about [[shapeshifting]] alien beings by [[Joe Haldeman]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Haldeman |first=Joe |title=Camouflage |publisher=Ace Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-441-01161-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/camouflage00hald }}</ref> The word is used more figuratively in works of literature such as Thaisa Frank's collection of stories of love and loss, ''A Brief History of Camouflage''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frank |first=Thaisa |title=A Brief History of Camouflage |publisher=Black Sparrow Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-87685-857-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca00fran }}</ref>

In 1986, [[Andy Warhol]] began a series of monumental camouflage paintings, which helped to transform camouflage into a popular print pattern. A year later, in 1987, New York designer [[Stephen Sprouse]] used Warhol's camouflage prints as the basis for his Autumn Winter 1987 collection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stephen Sprouse {{!}} Suit {{!}} American |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/83908 |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>{{clear}}

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="150px" widths="150px">
File:André_Mare_1885-1932_Camouflaged_280_Gun_sketch_in_ink_and_watercolour.jpg|[[André Mare]]'s [[Cubism|Cubist]] [[sketch (drawing)|sketch]], {{circa|1917}}, of a 280 calibre gun illustrates the interplay of art and war, as artists like Mare contributed their skills as wartime ''[[camoufleurs]]''.
File:Vietnam War protest in Washington DC April 1971.jpg|Camouflage clothing in an [[opposition to the Vietnam War|anti-war protest]], 1971
File:Aline Campos 1c.jpg|A camouflage skirt as a [[fashion]] item, 2007
</gallery>