Editing Books of Samuel (section)

== Composition ==
[[File:David and Bathsheba by Artemisia Gentileschi.jpg|thumb|''David and Bathsheba'', by [[Artemisia Gentileschi]], c. 1636. David is seen in the background, standing on a balcony.]]

=== Versions ===
1 and 2 Samuel were originally (and, in most Jewish bibles, still are{{sfn|Barron|2015|p=17}}) a single book, but the first Greek translation, called the [[Septuagint]] and produced around the 2nd century&nbsp;BCE, divided it into two; this was adopted by the Latin translations used in the early Christian church of the West, and finally introduced into Jewish bibles around the early 16th century.{{sfn|Gordon|1986|pp=19–20}}

In imitation of the Septuagint what is now commonly known as 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel, are called by the [[Vulgate]], [[Books of Kings|1 Kings and 2 Kings]] respectively.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}} What are now commonly known as 1 Kings and 2 Kings would be 3 Kings and 4 Kings in Bibles dating from before 1516.{{sfn|Schets|1910}} It was in 1517 that use of the division we know today, used by [[Protestant Bible]]s and adopted by [[Catholic Bible|Catholics]], began. Traditional Catholic and Orthodox Bibles still preserve the Septuagint name; for example, the [[Douay–Rheims Bible]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drbo.org/|title=Douay-Rheims Catholic Bible Online, Search Study Verses.|website=www.drbo.org}}</ref>

The Hebrew text that is used by Jews today, called the [[Masoretic Text]], differs considerably from the Hebrew text that was the basis of the first Greek translation, and scholars are still working at finding the best solutions to the many problems this presents.{{sfn|Bergen|1996|pp=25–27}}

=== Historical accuracy ===
{{further|Historicity of the Bible#Books of Samuel}}
The Books of Samuel are considered to be based on both historical and legendary sources, primarily serving to fill the gap in Israelite history after the events described in [[Deuteronomy]].{{sfn|Dietrich|2020|pp=100-101}} According to [[Donald Redford]], the Books of Samuel exhibit too many [[anachronisms]] to have been compiled in the 11th century BCE.{{sfn|Redford |1992|p=305}}

=== Authorship and date of composition ===
According to passages 14b and 15a of the [[Bava Basra]] tractate of the [[Talmud]], the book was written by [[Samuel]] up until [[1 Samuel 25]], which notes the death of Samuel, and the remainder by the prophets [[Gad (prophet)|Gad]] and [[Nathan (prophet)|Nathan]].<ref name="JewishEncyclopedia"/> Critical scholars from the 19th century onward have rejected this idea. However, even prior to this, the medieval Jewish commentator [[Isaac Abarbanel]] noted that the presence of anachronistic expressions (such as "to this day" and "in the past") indicated that there must have been a later editor such as Jeremiah or Ezra.{{sfn|Garsiel|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Lawee|2012|p=180}}{{sfn|Lawee|1996|pp=65-73}} [[Martin Noth]] in 1943 theorized that Samuel was composed by a single author as part of a history of Israel: the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (made up of [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], Samuel and [[Books of Kings|Kings]]).{{sfn|Klein|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&pg=PA316 316]}} Although Noth's belief that the entire history was composed by a single individual has been largely abandoned, his theory in its broad outline has been adopted by most scholars.{{sfn|Tsumura|2007|pp=15–19}}

The Deuteronomistic view is that an early version of the history was composed in the time of king [[Hezekiah]] (8th century&nbsp;BCE); the bulk of the first edition dates from his grandson [[Josiah]] at the end of the 7th century&nbsp;BCE, with further sections added during the [[Babylonian exile]] (6th century&nbsp;BCE) and the work was substantially complete {{circa|550&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}. Further editing was apparently done even after then. For example, A. Graeme Auld, Professor of Hebrew Bible at the University of Edinburgh, contends that the silver quarter-shekel which Saul's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 "almost certainly fixes the date of this story in the Persian or [[Hellenistic period]]".{{sfn|Auld|2003|p=219}}

The 6th-century&nbsp;BCE authors and editors responsible for the bulk of the history drew on many earlier sources, including (but not limited to) an "ark narrative" ([[1 Samuel 4:1]]–[[1 Samuel 7:1|7:1]] and perhaps part of [[2 Samuel 6]]), a "Saul cycle" (parts of [[1 Samuel 9]]–[[1 Samuel 11|11]] and [[1 Samuel 13|13]]–[[1 Samuel 14|14]]), the "history of David's rise" ([[1 Samuel 16]]:14–[[2 Samuel 5]]:10), and the "succession narrative" ([[2 Samuel 9]]–[[2 Samuel 20|20]] and [[1 Kings 1]]–[[1 Kings 2|2]]).{{sfn|Knight|1991|p=853}} The oldest of these, the "ark narrative," may even predate the Davidic era.{{sfn|Tsumura|2007|p=11}}

This view of late compilation for Samuel has faced serious scholarly opposition on the basis that evidence for the Deuteronimistic history is scant, and that Deuteronimistic advocates are not in consensus as to the origin and extent of the History. Secondly, the basic theological concerns identified with the Deuteronimistic school are tenets central to Hebrew theology in texts that are widely regarded as predating Josiah. Thirdly, there are notable differences in style and thematic emphasis between [[Deuteronomy]] and Samuel. Finally, there are widely acknowledged structural parallels between the [[Suzerainty#Hittite suzerainty treaty form|Hittite suzerain treaty]] of the 2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE and the Book of Deuteronomy itself, far before the time of Josiah. The alternative view is that it is difficult to determine when the events of Samuel were recorded: "There are no particularly persuasive reasons to date the sources used by the compiler later than the early tenth century events themselves, and good reason to believe that contemporary records were kept (cf. 2 Sam. 20:24–25)."{{sfn|Walton|2009|pp=258–59}}

=== Sources ===
The sources used to construct 1 and 2 Samuel are believed to include the following:<ref>Jones, pp. 197–99</ref>
*''Call of Samuel'' or ''Youth of Samuel'' ([[1 Samuel 1]]–[[1 Samuel 7|7]]): From Samuel's birth his career as Judge and prophet over Israel. This source includes the ''Eli narrative'' and part of the ark narrative.{{sfn|Soggin|1987|pp=210–11}}
*''Ark narrative'' ([[1 Samuel 4]]:1b–7:1 and 2 Samuel 6:1–20): the ark's capture by the Philistines in the time of Eli and its transfer to Jerusalem by David – opinion is divided over whether this is actually an independent unit.{{sfn|Eynikel|2000|p=88}}
*''Jerusalem source'': a fairly brief source discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the [[Jebusite]]s.
*''Republican source'': a source with an anti-monarchial [[bias]]. This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the Philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual chosen by God to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul's court to calm his moods. Saul's son Jonathan becomes friends with David, which [[David and Jonathan|some commentators view as romantic]], and later acts as his protector against Saul's more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God on the eve of battle, Saul consults a [[Mediumship|medium]] at [[Witch of Endor|Endor]], only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel's ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathan, tearing his clothes as a gesture of grief.
*''Monarchial source'': a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the ''republican source''. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel. It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites, being chosen by the people to be king, and leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging [[Goliath]] and defeating the Philistines. David's warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including [[Michal]], Saul's daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible, an [[Amalekite]], killed.
*''[[Court History of David]]'' or ''Succession narrative'' (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2): a "[[Historical fiction#Historical novel|historical novel]]", in [[Alberto Soggin]]'s phrase, telling the story of David's reign from his affair with [[Bathsheba]] to his death. The theme is of retribution: David's sin against [[Uriah the Hittite]] is punished by God through the destruction of his own family,{{sfn|Soggin|1987|pp=216–17}} and its purpose is to serve as an apology for the coronation of Bathsheba's son [[Solomon]] instead of his older brother [[Adonijah]].{{sfn|Klein|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&pg=PA316 316]}} Some textual critics have posited that given the intimacy and precision of certain narrative details, the Court Historian may have been an eyewitness to some of the events he describes, or at the very least enjoyed access to the archives and battle reports of the royal house of David.{{sfn|Kirsch|2009|pp=307-309}}
*''Redactions'': additions by the redactor to harmonize the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this editing.
*''Various'': several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists.

===Manuscript sources===
Four of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] feature parts of the books of Samuel: [[List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 1|1QSam]], found in [[Qumran Caves|Qumran Cave 1]], contains parts of 2 Samuel; and 4QSam<sup>a</sup>, 4QSam<sup>b</sup> and 4QSam<sup>c</sup>, all found in [[List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 4|Qumran Cave 4]]. Collectively they are known as [[The Samuel Scroll]] and date from the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewaytoyahuweh.com/blog/tag/1qsam/|title=1qsam &#124; The Way To Yahuweh}}</ref>{{sfn|Rezetko|Young|2014|p=671}}

The earliest complete surviving Hebrew copy of the books of Samuel is in the [[Aleppo Codex]] (10th century CE).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-sep-28-adfg-aleppo28-story.html|title=Scholars search for pages of ancient Hebrew Bible|date=September 28, 2008|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> The complete Greek text of Samuel is found in older manuscripts such as the 4th-century [[Codex Sinaiticus]].