Editing Ancient history (section)

====Austronesia====
{{Main|Austronesian peoples}}
[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|upright=1.75|thumb|Map showing the migration of the Austronesians from Taiwan]]

Around 3000 to 1500 BCE, a large-scale migration of [[Austronesians]], known as the [[Austronesian expansion]] began from [[Taiwan]]. [[Population growth]] primarily fueled this migration. These first settlers settled in northern [[Luzon]], in the archipelago of the [[Philippines]], intermingling with the earlier [[Australo-Melanesian]] population who had inhabited the islands since about 23,000 years earlier. Over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the [[Celebes Sea]] and Borneo.<ref name="Gray-et-al2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gray RD, Drummond AJ, Greenhill SJ | s2cid = 29838345 | title = Language phylogenies reveal expansion pulses and pauses in Pacific settlement | journal = Science | volume = 323 | issue = 5913 | pages = 479–83 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19164742 | doi = 10.1126/science.1166858 | bibcode = 2009Sci...323..479G }}</ref><ref name="Pawley2002">{{cite book | vauthors = Pawley A |chapter=The Austronesian dispersal: languages, technologies and people |editor1-first=Peter S. |editor1-last=Bellwood |editor2-first=Colin |editor2-last=Renfrew |title=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis |publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-902937-20-5 |pages=251–273 }}</ref> From southwestern Borneo, Austronesians spread further west in a single migration event to both [[Sumatra]] and the coastal regions of southern Vietnam, becoming the ancestors of the speakers of the [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] and [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] branches of the Austronesian language family.<ref name="Blust2019">{{cite journal |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |title=The Austronesian Homeland and Dispersal |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |date=14 January 2019 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=417–434 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-012440|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Soon after reaching the Philippines, Austronesians colonized the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] by 1500 BCE or even earlier, becoming the first humans to reach [[Remote Oceania]]. The [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]] migration was also unique in that it was the only Austronesian migration to the Pacific Islands to successfully retain rice cultivation. [[Palau]] and [[Yap]] were settled by separate voyages by 1000 BCE.<ref name="Blust2019"/><ref name="Gray-et-al2009"/><ref name="Pawley2002"/>

Another important migration branch was by the [[Lapita culture]], which rapidly spread into the islands off the coast of northern [[New Guinea]] and into the [[Solomon Islands]] and other parts of coastal New Guinea and [[Island Melanesia]] by 1200 BCE. They reached the islands of [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]], and [[Tonga]] by around 900 to 800 BCE. This remained the furthest extent of the Austronesian expansion into Polynesia until around 700 CE, when there was another surge of island colonisation. It reached the [[Cook Islands]], [[Tahiti]], and the [[Marquesas]] by 700 CE; [[Hawaii]] by 900 CE; [[Rapa Nui]] by 1000 CE; and New Zealand by 1200 CE.<ref name="Bellwood 1991">{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages |journal=Scientific American |date=1991 |volume=265 |issue=1 |pages=88–93 |jstor=24936983|bibcode=1991SciAm.265a..88B |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88 }}</ref><ref name="gibbons">{{cite web |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title='Game-changing' study suggests first Polynesians voyaged all the way from East Asia |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/game-changing-study-suggests-first-polynesians-voyaged-all-way-east-asia |website=Science |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413063912/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/10/game-changing-study-suggests-first-polynesians-voyaged-all-way-east-asia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Freeman"/> For a few centuries, the Polynesian islands were connected by bidirectional long-distance sailing, with the exception of Rapa Nui, which had limited further contact due to its isolated geographical location.<ref name="Blust2019"/> Island groups like the [[Pitcairns]], the [[Kermadec Islands]], and the [[Norfolk Islands]] were also formerly settled by Austronesians but later abandoned.<ref name="Freeman">{{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Donald B. |title=The Pacific |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781136604157 |pages=54–57}}</ref> There is also putative evidence, based in the spread of the [[sweet potato]], that Austronesians may have reached South America from Polynesia, where they might have traded with the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]].<ref name="Van Tilburg 1994">Van Tilburg, Jo Anne. 1994. ''Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture.'' Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Langdon, Robert. The Bamboo Raft as a Key to the Introduction of the Sweet Potato in Prehistoric Polynesia, ''The Journal of Pacific History'', Vol. 36, No. 1, 2001</ref>

[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and historic (Maritime Silk Road) maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]
[[File:Srivijaya Empire.svg|thumb|The [[thalassocratic]] [[Srivijaya]] empire at its maximum extent in the 8th to 11th centuries, showing their control of the straits of [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda]]]]

Austronesians established prehistoric [[Austronesian maritime trade network|maritime trade networks]] in Island Southeast Asia, including the Maritime Jade Road, a jade trade network, in Southeast Asia which existed in [[Taiwan]] and the [[Philippines]] for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. The trade was established by links between the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and the Philippines, and later included parts of Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other areas in Southeast Asia (known as the [[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huynh]]-[[Kalanay Cave|Kalanay]] Interaction Sphere). [[Lingling-o]] artifacts are one of the notable archeological finds originating from the Maritime Jade Road.<ref name="Tsang2000">{{cite journal |last1=Tsang |first1=Cheng-hwa |title=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2000 |volume=20 |pages=153–158 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=1835-1794}}</ref><ref name="Turton2021">{{cite news |last1=Turton |first1= M.  |title=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 |access-date=24 December 2021 |work=Taipei Times |date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Everington 2017a">{{cite news |last1=Everington |first1=K. |title=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 |access-date=24 December 2021|work=Taiwan News |date=6 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="BellwoodHung2011">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |last2=Hung |first2=H. |last3=Lizuka |first3=Yoshiyuki |chapter=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction |year=2011 |editor-last=Benitez-Johannot |editor-first=P. |title=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde |publisher=ArtPostAsia |isbn=978-971-94292-0-3}}</ref> During the operation of the Maritime Jade Road, the Austronesian [[spice trade]] networks were also established by [[Islander Southeast Asians]] with [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southern India]] by around 1000 to 600 BCE.<ref name="Bellina2014">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Herrera"/>

They also established early long-distance contacts with Africa, possibly as early as before 500 BCE, based on archaeological evidence like banana [[phytolith]]s in [[Cameroon]] and [[Uganda]] and remains of Neolithic chicken bones in [[Zanzibar]].<ref name="Tofanelli"/><ref name="Adelaar"/> An Austronesian group, originally from the [[Makassar Strait]] region around [[Kalimantan]] and [[Sulawesi]],<ref name="Pierron">{{cite journal |last1=Pierron |first1=Denis |last2=Razafindrazaka |first2=Harilanto |last3=Pagani |first3=Luca |last4=Ricaut |first4=François-Xavier |last5=Antao |first5=Tiago |last6=Capredon |first6=Mélanie |last7=Sambo |first7=Clément |last8=Radimilahy |first8=Chantal |last9=Rakotoarisoa |first9=Jean-Aimé |last10=Blench |first10=Roger M. |last11=Letellier |first11=Thierry |last12=Kivisild |first12=Toomas |title=Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar |bibcode-access=free |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=21 January 2014 |volume=111 |issue=3 |pages=936–941 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1321860111|doi-access=free |pmid=24395773 |pmc=3903192 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111..936P }}</ref><ref name="Heiske">{{cite journal |last1=Heiske |first1=Margit |last2=Alva |first2=Omar |last3=Pereda-Loth |first3=Veronica |last4=Van Schalkwyk |first4=Matthew |last5=Radimilahy |first5=Chantal |last6=Letellier |first6=Thierry |last7=Rakotarisoa |first7=Jean-Aimé |last8=Pierron |first8=Denis |title=Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population |doi-access=free |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |date=26 April 2021 |volume=30 |issue=R1 |pages=R72–R78 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddab018|pmid=33481023 }}</ref> eventually [[History of Madagascar#A common Austronesian origin: The Vahoaka Ntaolo|settled Madagascar]], either directly from Southeast Asia or from preexisting mixed Austronesian-[[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] populations from [[East Africa]]. Estimates for when this occurred vary from the 1st century CE,<ref name="Herrera">{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Michael B. |last2=Thomson |first2=Vicki A. |last3=Wadley |first3=Jessica J. |last4=Piper |first4=Philip J. |last5=Sulandari |first5=Sri |last6=Dharmayanthi |first6=Anik Budhi |last7=Kraitsek |first7=Spiridoula |last8=Gongora |first8=Jaime |last9=Austin |first9=Jeremy J. |title=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA |bibcode-access=free |doi-access=free |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=March 2017 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=160787 |doi=10.1098/rsos.160787|pmid=28405364 |pmc=5383821 |bibcode=2017RSOS....460787H |hdl=2440/104470 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> to as late as the 6th to 7th centuries CE.<ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |last1=Tofanelli |first1=S. |last2=Bertoncini |first2=S. |last3=Castri |first3=L. |last4=Luiselli |first4=D. |last5=Calafell |first5=F. |last6=Donati |first6=G. |last7=Paoli |first7=G. |title=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages |doi-access=free |via=Oxford Academic |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/26/9/2109/1197149?login=false |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=1 September 2009 |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120|pmid=19535740 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218235540/https://watermark.silverchair.com/msp120.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA08wggNLBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggM8MIIDOAIBADCCAzEGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM3zIrLyhNINC9bMG2AgEQgIIDAsiBPd2QXhjQ2A9ZbVE-TffRr_hdyFUQ41XZR1xcuffBYtBYII9KRz1lpqZ5kdMHOO0YX6xOknVY9Ved3wq-aFelhVC7-zj3_iJlEoi5S_BUWbxUsWI0gqnsn0WyfscqGaqWkllsmOmCCjaZzBtVKC1vxuOKRLkR4wTHSp0iuQgsgGjOWj6Qzj2_TwBeZgMsmd_mLO6bw60RfhtQIxaVWuHqjmPIZHBhk67Q7BN3CxHb0pJh1VuMI4yIuPGCENPgpi4iqsjX2yfjV-yQvOSbEEdouBDp6UgLJSD0dIhulSo-o38Pk70ix9KWzdEmwPCaafefyHPFBJOSMch5vjbN0FOde5XLaebW-eMnWCesYePXXAZ64kFY2YdRg7Qu3jeMhgKMsgbJVXrWrUcytt9qSUwgZJxLtVPD43xeJD9uyFp2YtA9OUeeeaKTsrY4KX9s4pA1XScwvXpWVrv80NTpsqQTTKOhTyFij760IEIlBjQa34e_ppTwdhIteMv_HvlwZ7R28acvAtgctfiy6dfMGR7yOZ2e2njgvceF83ANsA-R4bTNPQ_stQJWagCLHl5TnGj5Sm3uy6-PPJZskt0q2OmZCWRiUC6LoiPVBNw5BdJXsBPrhoo9zVnPnoqfsvtl5vWogjh9VLhQ5m3_F_ZKcnjm9o0ih-_rCL8Y85Gg3nJOxrJ0g4me0FFiaaApVRfdBcO-oeo5NKZ9ZQWtXjPG5MQ-ZniCGPVRlJyAH1phe1TsrNxGZX0GFIMo3v_FQ-luzp5eKOsWJ95pclPfcoOihl9AgZwGGnsUd0NL-GqBWciaQOEOF0SAk2S-ZUeZZQsD2hpvQXisMmysDn_TVpmIu-GxhSehFTN82fc4or9PalW_anePtPPlIish-Ssnw1pycCVIQ5WPbcvx7qCVQOM0yNnRVU_byfin257Yz-b6tWOCbatyAAYazzt-w_z5Y4O_ewnrjt11oG6dLTXU6oRJu8N53ZKnGRQD7mFG00GjDiAInzMtiZRbT8jswfbr8gQpqzTQ |archive-date= Dec 18, 2024 }}</ref><ref name="Adelaar">{{cite journal |last1=Adelaar |first1=Alexander |title=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence |url=https://rest.neptune-prod.its.unimelb.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/3e98e25b-05f2-54f1-ad37-0a71377af48a/content |via=Minerva Access  |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=June 2012 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=123–159 |doi=10.1353/ol.2012.0003|hdl=11343/121829 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is likely that the Austronesians that settled [[Madagascar]] followed a coastal route through South Asia and East Africa, rather than directly across the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Blust2019"/> Genetic evidence suggests that some individuals of Austronesian descent reached Africa and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brucato |first=N. |date=2019 |title=Evidence of Austronesian Genetic Lineages in East Africa and South Arabia: Complex Dispersal from Madagascar and Southeast Asia |publisher=Oxford Academic |doi-access=free |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/11/3/748/5306180 |access-date=23 May 2024 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=748–758 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz028 |pmc=6423374 |pmid=30715341 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218232206/https://watermark.silverchair.com/evz028.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA0swggNHBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggM4MIIDNAIBADCCAy0GCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMi63Q-otCkvnEiV_dAgEQgIIC_gFBi_7S9424cRt7GxbUj6b326Wqcl0yDKo-U6kHnCgRNYVrgf1nALW8T936GL2-Hp-9bra_6eK6JmwyWaKwrJqP8S39d7N-hVH8jcBz9v5TBVpiO-zI4g5bRRCN-6DrzIYrA-mqjrxBzOVtBG5BdKOzTjxAeh2xFI6X9_ftztbb-HlE495ki-Hlz1sfdIzfjg9C6UnNbfTxM40sdoQJk2f3IOhY82v-L0aBnsji6Yr1iZHOT-dZHhUDs1tMrpe5bhAfDUVustvoTTOXUIbZMBjtYAVOy0slbnCNSzWiKJYiWp8wIkJXfM_GY7sTBGRDxWFx3zwIpaIjQR_W7fk8bgn4rKl7SIAbIafwAJLJtXCBBzYIRgNpiHVwywYDohGygwbiNIOA03IE9q3ratvv53GiJDoFYDA8mg71chbL04C4HzERVCBtv4i8zG2owGE0bPtBmAiq_Eoa4z936EscwReseNbX4Cqcxfg3bBKTXSCX46hUAdqkrQ_x340rYJDdIwu5DxwsZER5ik8avnc1UClPnq2CUCxqrNsWP9IwQqH8Ekl3vzPWSIEnSpuMTCbyn-7ykhky-kRKGJBfkdXxi5d4oN-BOt8AWWkxLP2jrsqv_j8yV9BBE6Hid5Np63C7meZYrHfKE6GIX5TOBO09kDcnmhUf8-gh4lt26PwkM89kSejyP8ryf8oWIvsLCupMUkcfB-P1iZGVJPwfm0kL1r3wam0AWdhc-T6DA2EKgJ2Tm5koorsaH601pPTMhYP7cjK6lU_FUSiXnjZaOF_tir96HJzwE7lXmDaiFHPAXtKw-8-_Podqk3jgLThgGV2SBrBhemiI5YtPlH5UImje9KyaOEdM86erkf325faYX5evbf2PquQSDHfQ9apf-lHogNXOxm4_E9SsyXnkgOh9UlTv0oMXsHOFTHwe0hJGDFLBowzRLmePZKJ9mGKzn9aq9G4ydoIAGO-LBKmyJ6lYhpwwdNSwfjokkn8Li_hS_MYHIX_iqOuq4827CoFIC7c |archive-date= Dec 18, 2024 }}</ref>

By around the 2nd century BCE, the [[Neolithic]] Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia connected with the maritime trade routes of [[South Asia]], the [[Middle East]], eastern [[Africa]], and the [[Mediterranean]], becoming what is now known as the [[Maritime Silk Road]]. Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive [[lashed lug boat|lashed-lug]] ships, although [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.<ref name="Guan">{{cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Kwa Chong |title=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea |journal=NSC Working Paper |date=2016 |issue=23 |pages=1–30 |url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23.pdf |publisher=ISEAS  |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030522/https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23.pdf |archive-date= Mar 26, 2023 }}</ref><ref name=Billé/> It allowed the exchange of goods from [[East Asia|East]] and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to [[Europe]] and eastern Africa on the other.<ref name=Billé>{{cite book |editor1=Franck Billé |editor2=Sanjyot Mehendale |editor3=James W. Lankton |title=The Maritime Silk Road |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3-2dfa-4a0d-b04b-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429.pdf |year=2022 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-4855-242-9}}</ref>

[[Srivijaya]], an Austronesian polity founded at [[Palembang]] in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits of [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda]] and the South China Sea [[emporium (antiquity)|emporium]] by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.<ref name="Guan"/>{{rp|page=12}} It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included [[Melayu Kingdom|Melayu]], [[Kedah]], [[Tarumanagara]], and [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the [[Maluku islands|Spice Islands]], as well as maritime trade-routes between [[India]] and [[China]].<ref name="Sulistiyono">{{cite journal |last1= Sulistiyono |first1= Singgih Tri |last2= Masruroh |first2= Noor Naelil |last3= Rochwulaningsih |first3= Yety |title= Contest For Seascape: Local Thalassocracies and Sino-Indian Trade Expansion in the Maritime Southeast Asia During the Early Premodern Period |journal= Journal of Marine and Island Cultures |date= 2018 |volume= 7 |issue= 2 |doi= 10.21463/jmic.2018.07.2.05 |url= http://jmic.online/issues/v7n2/5/|doi-access= free }}</ref>