Editing Algerian War (section)

== Historiography ==
[[File:French North African Operations medal law of 11 January 1958.jpg|upright|thumb|French North African Operations medal, 11 January 1958]]
Although the opening of the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs after a 30-year lock-up enabled some new [[historiography|historical research]] on the war, including [[Jean-Charles Jauffret]]'s book, ''La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents'' (The Algerian War According to the Documents), many remain inaccessible.<ref name="DiploApril" /> The recognition in 1999 by the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] permitted the Algerian War to enter the syllabi of French schools. In France, the war was known as "''la guerre sans nom''" ("the war without a name") while it was being fought. The government variously described the war as the "Algerian events", the "Algerian problem" and the "Algerian dispute"; the mission of the French Army was "ensuring security", "maintaining order" and "pacification" but was never described as fighting a war. The FLN were referred to as "criminals", "bandits", "outlaws", "terrorists" and "''fellagha''" (a derogatory Arabic word meaning "road-cutters" but often mistranslated as "throat-cutters" in reference to the FLN's frequent method of execution, which made people wear the "Kabylian smile" by cutting their throats, pulling their tongues out, and leaving them to bleed to death).<ref name="Dine">{{cite book|last=Dine|first=Philip|title=France At War In the Twentieth Century ''A la recherche du soldat perdu'': Myth, Metaphor and Memory in the French Cinema of the Algerian War|publisher=Berghahan Books|year=2000|page=144}}</ref> After reports of the widespread use of torture by French forces started to reach France in 1956–57, the war become commonly known as ''la sale guerre'' ("the dirty war"), a term that is still used today and reflects the very negative memory of the war in France.<ref name="Dine" />{{rp|145}}

=== Lack of commemoration ===
As the war was officially a "[[police action]]", no monuments were built for decades to honour the about 25,000 French soldiers killed in the war, and the Defense Ministry refused to classify veterans as veterans until the 1970s.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|219}} When a monument to the Unknown Soldier of the Algerian War was erected in 1977, French President [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], in his dedication speech, refused to use the words war or Algeria but instead used the phrase "the unknown soldier of North Africa".<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|219}} A national monument to the French war dead was not built until 1996 and, even then spoke only of those killed fighting in ''Afrique du nord'' and was located in a decrepit area of Paris rarely visited by tourists, as if to hide the monument.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|226}} Further adding to the silence were the vested interests of French politicians. François Mitterrand, the French president 1981 to 1995, had been the Interior Minister from 1954 to 1955 and the Justice Minister from 1955 to 1957, when he had been deeply involved in the repression of the FLN, and it was only after Mitterrand's death in 1996, that his [[French Socialist Party]] started to become willing to talk about the war and, even then, remained very guarded about his role.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|232}} Likewise, de Gaulle had promised in the Évian Agreements that the ''pieds-noirs'' could remain in Algeria, but after independence, the FLN freely violated the accords and led to the entire ''pied-noir'' population fleeing to France, usually with only the clothes they were wearing, as they had lost everything they had in Algeria, a circumstance further embarrassing the defeated nation.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|232}}

=== English-language historiography ===

One of the first books about the war in English, ''A Scattering of Dust'' by the American journalist Herb Greer in 1962, depicted very favorably the Algerian struggle for independence.<ref name="Brett">{{cite journal |last=Brett |first=Michael |year=1994 |title=Anglo-Saxon Attitudes: The Algerian War of Independence in Retrospect |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=220–1 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700026402 |s2cid=154576215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Greer |first=Herb |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDYMAQAAIAAJ |title=A Scattering of Dust |date=1962 |publisher=Hutchinson |language=en}}</ref> Most work in English in the 1960s and 1970s were the work of left-wing scholars, who were focused on explaining the FLN as a part of a generational change in Algerian nationalism and depicted the war as a reaction to intolerable oppression and/or an attempt by the peasants, impoverished by French policies, to improve their lot.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|222–5}} One of the few military histories of the war was ''The Algerian Insurrection'', by the retired British Army officer [[Edgar O'Ballance]], who wrote with unabashed admiration for French high command during the war and saw the FLN as a terrorist group. O'Ballance concluded that the tactics which won the war militarily for the French lost the war for them politically.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|225–6}}

In 1977, the British journalist [[Alistair Horne]] published ''A Savage War of Peace'', regarded by some authors as the leading book written on the subject in English, though written from a French, rather than Algerian perspective.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|226}} Fifteen years after the end of the war, Horne was accused of not being concerned about "right or wrong" but rather about "cause and effect".<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|217–35}} Living in Paris at the time of the war, Horne had condemned French intervention during the [[Suez Crisis]] and the French bombing of the Tunisian village of Sakiet Sidi Youssef in 1958. He'd argued that the "inflexibility" of the FLN had won Algeria independence, creating a sense of Algerian national identity, and leading the Front to rule over authoritarian but "progressive" FLN regime.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|217–35}}

In a 1977 column published in ''The Times Literary Supplement'' reviewing the book ''A Savage War of Peace'', Iraqi-born British historian [[Elie Kedourie]] attacked Horne as an "apologist for terrorism" and accused him of engaging in the "cosy pieties" of ''bien-pensants''. Kedorie condemned the Western intellectuals who excuse terrorism when committed by Third World revolutionaries.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|217–35}} Kedourie claimed that far from a mass movement, the FLN were a "small gang" of "murderous intellectuals" who used brutal, terrorist tactics against the French citizens and military, and against any Muslim loyal to the French. He further claimed that the Front had been beaten by 1959.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|217–235}} Kedourie charged that de Gaulle had cynically sacrificed the ''colons'' and the ''harkis'', as he had chosen to disregard his constitutional oath as president to protect all Frenchmen and ensure that "the French withdrew and handed over power to the only organized body of armed men who were on the scene – a civilized government, thus, acting for all the world like the votary of some Mao or Ho, in the barbarous belief that legitimacy comes from the power of the gun".<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|227}}

In 1992, American historian John Ruedy, the focus of whose research was the history of the [[Maghreb]] and French colonialism in Algeria, published ''Modern Algeria: Origins and Development of a Nation''.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|232–3}} Ruedy wrote that under French rule the traditional social structure had been so completely destroyed that when the FLN launched its independence struggle in 1954, the only way of asserting one's interests was through "the law of the gun", which explains why the FLN was so violent not only in regards to its enemies but also within the movement. The FLN, thus, according to Ruedy, formed the basis of an "alternative political culture", based on "brute force" that has persisted ever since.<ref name=Brett/>{{rp|233}}

===In film===

Before the war, Algeria was a popular setting for French films; the British professor Leslie Hill having written: "In the late 1920s and 1930s, for instance, North Africa provided film-makers in France with a ready fund of familiar images of the exotics, mingling, for instance, the languid eroticism of Arabian nights with the infinite and hazy vistas of the Sahara to create a powerful confection of tragic heroism and passionate love."<ref name=Dine/>{{rp|147}} During the war itself, French censors banned the entire subject of the war.<ref name=Dine/>{{rp|147–8}} Since 1962, when film censorship relating to the war eased, French films dealing with the conflict have consistently portrayed the war as a set of conflicting memories and rival narratives (which ones being correct are left unclear), with most films dealing with the war taking a disjointed chronological structure in which scenes before, during and after the war are juxtaposed out of sequence with one film critic referring to the cinematic Algeria as "an ambiguous world marked by the displacements and repetitions of dreams".<ref name=Dine/>{{rp|142–58}} The consistent message of French films dealing with the war is that something horrible happened, but what happened, who was involved and why are left unexplained.<ref name=Dine/>{{rp|142–158}} Atrocities, especially torture by French forces are acknowledged, the French soldiers who fought in Algeria were and are always portrayed in French cinema as the "lost soldiers" and tragic victims of the war who are more deserving of sympathy than the FLN people they tortured, which are almost invariably portrayed as vicious, psychopathic terrorists, an approach to the war that has raised anger in Algeria.<ref name=Dine/>{{rp|151–6}}

=== Reminders ===

From time to time, the memory of the Algerian War surfaced in France. In 1987, when SS-''Hauptsturmführer'' [[Klaus Barbie]], the "Butcher of Lyon", was brought to trial for crimes against humanity, graffiti appeared on the walls of the ''banlieues'', the slum districts in which most Algerian immigrants in France live, reading: "Barbie in France! When will Massu be in Algeria!".<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|230}} Barbie's lawyer, [[Jacques Vergès]], adopted a ''[[tu quoque]]'' defence that asked the judges "is a crime against humanity is to be defined as only one of Nazis against the Jews or if it applies to more seriously crimes... the crimes of imperialists against people struggling for their independence?". He went on to say that nothing that his client had done against the French Resistance that was not done by "certain French officers in Algeria" who, Vergès noted, could not be prosecuted because of de Gaulle's amnesty of 1962.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|230}} In 1997, when [[Maurice Papon]], a career French civil servant was brought to trial for crimes against humanity for sending 1600 Jews from Bordeaux to be killed at Auschwitz in 1942, it emerged over the course of the trial that on 17 October 1961, Papon had organized a [[Paris massacre of 1961|massacre of between 100 and 200 Algerians]] in central Paris, which was the first time that most French had ever heard of the massacre.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|231}} The revelation that hundreds of people had been killed by the Paris ''Sûreté'' was a great shock in France and led to uncomfortable questions being raised about what had happened during the Algerian War.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|231}} The American historian William Cohen wrote that the Papon trial "sharpened the focus" on the Algerian War but not provide "clarity", as Papon's role as a civil servant under Vichy led to misleading conclusions in France that it was former collaborators who were responsible for the terror in Algeria, but most of the men responsible, like Guy Mollet, General Marcel Bigeard, Robert Lacoste, General Jacques Massu and Jacques Soustelle, had actually all been ''résistants'' in World War II, which many French historians found to be very unpalatable.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|231}}

On 15 June 2000, ''Le Monde'' published an interview with Louisette Ighilahriz, a former FLN member who described in graphic detail her torture at the hands of the French Army and made the sensational claim that the war heroes General Jacques Massu and General Marcel Bigeard had personally been present when she was being tortured for information.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|233}} What made the interview very touching for many French people was that Ighilahriz was not demanding vengeance but wished to express thanks to Dr. François Richaud, the army doctor who extended her much kindness and who, she believed, saved her life by treating her every time she was tortured. She asked if it were possible for her to see Dr. Richaud one last time to thank him personally, but it later turned out that Dr. Richaud had died in 1997.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|233}} As Ighilahriz had been an attractive woman in her youth, university-educated, secular, fluent in French and fond of quoting [[Victor Hugo]], and her duties in the FLN had been as an information courier, she made for a most sympathetic victim since she was a woman who did not come across as Algerian.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|234}} William Cohen commented that had she been an uneducated man who had been involved in killings and was not coming forward to express thanks for a Frenchman, her story might not have resonated the same way.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|234}} The Ighiahriz case led to a public letter signed by 12 people who been involved in the war to President [[Jacques Chirac]] to ask October 31 be made a public day of remembrance for victims of torture in Algeria.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|234}}

In response to the Ighilahriz case, General Paul Aussaresses gave an interview on 23 November 2000 in which he candidly admitted to ordering torture and extrajudicial executions and stated he had personally executed 24 ''fellagha''. He argued that they were justified, as torture and extrajudicial executions were the only way to defeat the FLN.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|235}} In May 2001, Aussaresses published his memoirs, ''Services spéciaux Algérie 1955–1957'', in which he presented a detailed account of torture and extrajudicial killings in the name of the republic, which he wrote were all done under orders from Paris; that confirmed what had been long suspected.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|239}} As a result of the interviews and Aussaresses's book, the Algerian War was finally extensively discussed by the French media, which had ignored the subject as much as possible for decades, but no consensus emerged about how to best remember the war.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|235}} Adding to the interest was the decision by one war veteran, Georges Fogel, to come forward to confirm that he had seen Ighiahriz and many others tortured in 1957, and the politician and war veteran Jean Marie Faure decided in February 2001 to release extracts from the diary that he had kept and showed "acts of sadism and horror" that he had witnessed.<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|235}} The French historian [[Pierre Vidal-Naquet]] called that a moment of "catharsis" that was "explainable only in near-French terms: it is the return of the repressed".<ref name=Cohen/>{{rp|235–6}}

In 2002, ''Une Vie Debout: Mémoires Politiques'' by Mohammed Harbi, a former advisor to Ben Bella, was published in which Harbi wrote: "Because they [the FLN leaders] weren't supported at the moment of their arrival on the scene by a real and dynamic popular movement, they took power of the movement by force and they maintained it by force. Convinced that they had to act with resolution in order to protect themselves against their enemies, they deliberately chose an authoritarian path."<ref name="Shatz"/>

=== Continued controversy in France ===

The Algerian War remains a contentious event. According to the historian [[Benjamin Stora]], one of the leading historians on the war, memories concerning the war remain fragmented, with no common ground to speak of:

<blockquote>There is no such thing as a history of the Algerian War; there is just a multitude of histories and personal paths through it. Everyone involved considers that they lived through it in their own way, and any attempt to understand the Algerian War globally is immediately rejected by protagonists.<ref name="MemoryStora">[http://www.ina.fr/voir_revoir/algerie/itv_stora.light.en.html Bringing down the barriers – people's memories of the Algerian War] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705003504/http://www.ina.fr/voir_revoir/algerie/itv_stora.light.en.html |date=July 5, 2007}}, interview with [[Benjamin Stora]] published on the [[Institut national de l'audiovisuel]] archive website {{in lang|en}}</ref></blockquote>

Even though Stora has counted 3,000 publications in French on the war, there still is no work produced by French and Algerian authors co-operating with each other. Although according to Stora, there can "no longer be talk about a 'war without a name', a number of problems remain, especially the absence of sites in France to commemorate" the war. Furthermore, conflicts have arisen on an exact commemoration date to end the war. Although many sources as well as the French state place it on 19 March 1962, the [[Évian Accords|Évian Agreements]], others point out that massacres of harkis and the kidnapping of ''pieds-noirs'' took place later. Stora further points out, "The phase of memorial reconciliation between the two sides of the sea is still a long way off."<ref name="MemoryStora"/> That was evidenced by the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]]'s creation of the [[French law on colonialism|law on colonialism]] on 23 February 2005 that asserted that colonialism had overall been "positive".

Alongside a heated debate in France, the February 23, 2005, law had the effect of jeopardising the treaty of friendship that President Chirac was supposed to sign with President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], which was no longer on the agenda. Following that controversial law, Bouteflika has talked about a cultural [[genocide]], particularly referring to the 1945 [[Sétif massacre]]. Chirac finally had the law repealed by a complex institutional mechanism.

Another matter concerns the teaching of the war as well as of colonialism and decolonization, particularly in [[Education in France|French secondary schools]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Terminale'' history class: teaching about torture during the Algerian war |last=McCormack |first=J. |journal=[[Modern & Contemporary France]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=75–86 |doi=10.1080/0963948042000196379 |s2cid=145083214 }}</ref> Hence, there is only one reference to [[racism]] in a French textbook, one published by [[Bréal]] publishers for ''terminales'' students, those passing their [[baccalauréat]]. Thus, many are not surprised that the first to speak about the [[Paris massacre of 1961]] were music bands, including hip-hop bands such as the famous [[Suprême NTM]] (''les Arabes dans la Seine'') or politically-engaged [[La Rumeur]]. Indeed, the Algerian War is not even the subject of a specific chapter in the textbook for ''terminales''.<ref name="DiploApril">[http://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture Colonialism Through the School Books – The hidden history of the Algerian war] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422180941/https://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture |date=22 April 2019 }}, ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', April 2001 {{in lang|en|fr}}</ref> Henceforth, Benjamin Stora stated:

<blockquote>As Algerians do not appear in an "indigenous" condition, and their sub-citizens status, as the history of nationalist movement, is never evoked as their being one of great figures of the resistance, such as Messali Hadj and Ferhat Abbas. They neither emerge nor are being given attention. No one is explaining to students what colonization has been. We have prevented students from understanding why the decolonization took place.<ref name="DiploApril"/></blockquote>

=== Socioeconomic situation of French Algerians ===

In [[Metropolitan France]] in 1963, 43% of French Algerians lived in ''[[poverty in France|bidonvilles]]'' (shanty towns).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cndp.fr/Tice/Teledoc/dossiers/dossier_gone.htm|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20010217152409/http://www.cndp.fr/Tice/Teledoc/dossiers/dossier_gone.htm|url-status=dead|title=Français, histoire - Écoles, collège|archive-date=17 February 2001|access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref> Thus, [[Azouz Begag]], the delegate Minister for Equal Opportunities, wrote an autobiographic novel, ''Le Gone du Chaâba'', about his experiences while living in a ''bidonville'' in the outskirts of Lyon. It is impossible to understand the third-generation of Algerian immigrants to France without recalling the [[biculturalism|bicultural]] experience. An official parliamentary report on the "prevention of criminality", commanded by Interior Minister [[Philippe de Villepin]] and made by the deputy [[Jacques-Alain Bénisti]], claimed, "[[Bilingualism]] (''bilinguisme'') was a factor of criminality" (sic<ref>[http://ecolesdifferentes.free.fr/rapport_BENISTI_prevention.pdf Rapport préliminaire de la commission prévention du groupe d'études parlementaire sur la sécurité intérieure – Sur la prévention de la délinquance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208052714/http://ecolesdifferentes.free.fr/rapport_BENISTI_prevention.pdf |date=8 December 2006 }}, presided by the deluty [[Jacques-Alain Bénisti]], October 2004 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>). Following outcries, the definitive version of the report finally made bilingualism an asset, rather than a fault.<ref>[http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1084 Analyse de la version finale du rapport Benisti] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825095933/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1084 |date=2007-08-25 }}, [[Ligue des droits de l'homme]] (LDH, Human Rights League), and [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070615180905/http://www.abri.org/antidelation/IMG/pdf/RAPPORT_BESNISTI.pdf Final version] of the Bénisti report given to Interior Minister [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

=== French recognition of historical use of torture ===

After having denied or downplayed its use for 40 years, France has finally recognized its history of torture, but there was never an official proclamation about it. General [[Paul Aussaresses]] was sentenced following his justification of the use of torture for "apology of war crimes". As they occurred during [[war]]time, France claimed torture to be isolated acts, instead of admitting its responsibility for the frequent use of torture to break the insurgents' morale, not, as Aussaresses had claimed, to "save lives" by gaining short-term information which would stop "terrorists".<ref>[http://www.mfo.ac.uk/fr/node/246 The French Army and Torture during the Algerian War (1954–1962)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211153515/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/fr/node/246 |date=2008-12-11}}, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de [[Rennes]], 18 November 2004 {{in lang|en}}</ref> The state now claims that torture was a regrettable aberration because of the context of the exceptionally-savage war. However, academic research has proved both theses to be false. "Torture in Algeria was engraved in the colonial act; it is a 'normal' illustration of an abnormal system", wrote Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, who discussed the phenomena of "[[human zoo]]s".<ref name="Bancel&al">[http://mondediplo.com/2001/06/10torture "Torture in Algeria: Past Acts That Haunt France – False memory"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226162846/https://mondediplo.com/2001/06/10torture |date=26 December 2019 }}, ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', June 2001 {{in lang|en|fr}}</ref> From the ''enfumades'' (slaughter by smoke inhalation) of the Darha caves in 1844 by [[Aimable Pélissier]] to the 1945 riots in Sétif, [[Guelma]] and [[Kherrata]], the repression in Algeria used the same methods. Following the Sétif massacres, other riots against the European presence occurred in Guelma, Batna, Biskra, and Kherrata that resulted in 103 deaths among the ''pieds-noirs''. The suppression of the riots officially saw 1,500 other deaths, but N. Bancel, P. Blanchard and S. Lemaire estimate the number to be between 6,000 and 8,000.<ref name="Bancel&al_2">Bancel, Blanchard and Lemaire (op.cit.) quote **[[Boucif Mekhaled]], ''Chroniques d'un massacre. 8 mai 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata'', [[Syros]], Paris, 1995 **[[Yves Benot]], ''Massacres coloniaux'', [[La Découverte]], coll. "Textes à l'appui", Paris, 1994

** Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, ''Aux origines de la guerre d'Algérie'', La Découverte, Paris, 2001.
</ref>

=== INA archives ===
''Note: concerning the audio and film archives from the [[Institut national de l'audiovisuel]] (INA), <u>see Benjamin Stora's comments on their politically-oriented creation</u>.<ref name="MemoryStora"/>''
* [http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=pied+noir&num_notice=4&total_notices=113 Cinq Colonnes à la une, Rushes Interview Pied-Noir, ORTF, July 1, 1962].
* [http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=alg%E9rie+r%E9trospective&num_notice=1&total_notices=28 Cinq Colonnes à la une, Rétrospective Algérie, ORTF, June 9, 1963] (concerning these [[Institut national de l'audiovisuel|INA]] archives, see also Benjamin Stora's warning about the conditions of creation of these images).

=== Contemporary publications ===
* [[Roger Trinquier|Trinquier, Roger]]. ''Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency'', 1961.
* [[Pierre Leulliette|Leulliette, Pierre]], ''St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper'', Houghton Mifflin, 1964.
* [[David Galula|Galula, David]], ''Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice'', 1964.
* [[Edmond Jouhaud|Jouhaud, Edmond]]. ''O Mon Pays Perdu: De Bou-Sfer a Tulle.'' Paris: Librarie Artheme Fayard, 1969.
* [[Etienne Maignen|Maignen, Etienne]] ''Treillis au djebel – Les Piliers de Tiahmaïne'' Yellow Concept, 2004.
* Derradji, Abder-Rahmane, The Algerian Guerrilla Campaign Strategy & Tactics, The Edwin Mellen Press, New York, 1997.
* [[Mouloud Feraoun|Feraoun, Mouloud]], Journal 1955–1962, University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
* [[Pečar, Zdravko]], ''Alžir do nezavisnosti.'' Beograd: Prosveta; Beograd: Institut za izučavanje radničkog pokreta, 1967.

=== Other publications ===
==== English-language ====
* Aussaresses, General Paul. ''The Battle of the Casbah'', New York: Enigma Books, 2010, {{ISBN|978-1-929631-30-8}}.
* {{cite book|author=Horne, Alistair|title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962|publisher=Viking|year=1978|isbn=978-0-670-61964-1|author-link=Alistair Horne|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn}}
* [[Rita Maran|Maran, Rita]] (1989). ''[[Torture]]: The Role of [[Ideology]] in the French-Algerian War'', New York: Prager Publishers.
* [[Martin Windrow|Windrow, Martin]]. ''The Algerian War 1954–62.'' London: Osprey Publishing, 1997. {{ISBN|1-85532-658-2}}.
* [[Arslan Humbaraci]]. ''Algeria: a revolution that failed. '' London: Pall mall Press Ltd, 1966.
* Samia Henni: ''Architecture of Counterrevolution. The French Army in Northern Algeria'', gta Verlag, Zürich 2017. {{ISBN|978-3-85676-376-3}}.
* [[Pečar, Zdravko]], ''Algeria to Independence.'' Currently being translated into English by Dubravka Juraga at: [https://historyofalgeria.wordpress.com/ Zdravko Pečar: Alžir do nezavisnosti].

==== French language ====
''Translations may be available for some of these works. See specific cases.''
* Benot, Yves (1994). ''Massacres coloniaux'', La Découverte, coll. "Textes à l'appui", Paris.
* [[Jean-Charles Jauffret|Jauffret, Jean-Charles]]. ''La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents'' (first tome, 1990; second tome, 1998; [http://remmm.revues.org/document2375.html account here]).
* Rey-Goldzeiguer, Annie (2001). ''Aux origines de la guerre d'Algérie'', La Découverte, Paris.
* [[Marie-Monique Robin|Robin, Marie-Monique]]. ''Escadrons de la mort, l'école française'',453 pages. La Découverte (15 September 2004). Collection: Cahiers libres. ({{ISBN|2-7071-4163-1}}) (Spanish transl.: ''Los Escuadrones De La Muerte/ the Death Squadron''), 539 pages. Sudamericana; Édition: Translatio (October 2005) ({{ISBN|950-07-2684-X}}).
* Mekhaled, Boucif (1995). ''Chroniques d'un massacre. 8 mai 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata'', [[Syros]], Paris, 1995.
* Slama, Alain-Gérard (1996). ''La Guerre d'Algérie. Histoire d'une déchirure'', Gallimard, coll. "[[Découvertes Gallimard]]" (n° 301), Paris.
* [[Pierre Vidal-Naquet|Vidal-Naquet, Pierre]]. ''La Torture sous la République'' (1970) and many others, more recent (see entry).
* [[Jules Roy|Roy, Jules]] (1960). "La guerre d'Algérie" ("The War in Algeria", 1961, Grove Press).
* [[Etienne Maignen]]. ''Treillis au djebel- Les Piliers de Tiahmaïne '' Yellow Concept 2004.
* [[Gilbert Meynier]]. ''Histoire intérieure du FLN 1954–1962 '' Fayard 2004.