Editing Problem of universals (section)

===Nominalism<!--Linked from 'Anti-realism'-->===
{{main|Nominalism}}
Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings; ''universalia post res''). The term "nominalism" comes from the Latin ''nomen'' ("name"). Four major forms of nominalism are [[predicate nominalism]], [[resemblance nominalism]], [[trope nominalism]], and [[conceptualism]].<ref name="IEP2"/> One with a nominalist view claims that we predicate the same property of/to multiple entities, but argues that the entities only share a name and do not have a real quality in common.

Nominalists often argue this view by claiming that nominalism can account for all the relevant phenomena, and therefore—by [[Occam's razor]], and its principle of simplicity—nominalism is preferable, since it posits fewer entities. Different variants and versions of nominalism have been endorsed or defended by many, including [[Chrysippus]],<ref>John Sellars, ''Stoicism'', Routledge, 2014, pp. 84–85: "[Stoics] have often been presented as the first nominalists, rejecting the existence of universal concepts altogether. ... For Chrysippus there are no universal entities, whether they be conceived as substantial [[Platonic Forms]] or in some other manner.".</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.iep.utm.edu/chrysipp/| title = Chrysippus (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)}}</ref> [[Ibn Taymiyyah]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Marzouki|first=Abou Yaareb|title=Isla'h al-'Aql fi al-Falsafah al-'Arabiyyah: Min waqi'iyyat Aflatun wa Aristo Ila Ismiyyat Ibn Taymiyyah wa Ibn Khaldun|publisher=Center for Arab Unity Studies|year=1994|location=Beirut|script-title=ar: إصلاح العقل في الفلسفة العربية: من واقعية أفلاطون وأرسطو إلى اسمية ابن تيمية وابن خلدون|trans-title=Reformation of Reason in Arabic Philosophy: from the Realism of Plato and Aristotle to the Nominalism of Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Khaldun|author-link=Mohamed Habib Marzouki}}</ref> [[William of Ockham]], [[Ibn Khaldun]],<ref name=":1" /> [[Rudolf Carnap]],<ref name=":0">{{cite web| url = https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/resemblance-nominalism-a-solution-to-the-problem-of-universals/| title = "Review of Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra, ''Resemblance Nominalism: A Solution to the Problem of Universals''" – ndpr.nd.edu| date = 7 February 2004| last1 = MacBride| first1 = Fraser}}</ref> [[Nelson Goodman]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| url = https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/goodman/supplement.html| title = "Nelson Goodman: The Calculus of Individuals in its different versions"|encyclopedia= Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> [[David Kellogg Lewis|David Lewis]],<ref name=":0" /> [[H. H. Price]],<ref name=":0" /> and [[D. C. Williams]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/williams-dc/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|first1=Keith|last1=Campbell|first2=James|last2=Franklin|first3=Douglas|last3=Ehring|chapter=Donald Cary Williams |editor-first1=Edward N.|editor-last1=Zalta|editor-first2=Uri|editor-last2=Nodelman|date=August 26, 2023|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>