Editing Napoleon (section)

==Exile on Saint Helena{{anchor|Custody of Napoleon Buonaparte Act 1816|Intercourse with Saint Helena Act 1816}}==
{{Main|Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena}}
[[File:Napoleon sainthelene.jpg|thumb|''Napoleon on [[Saint Helena]]'', watercolour by Franz Josef Sandmann, {{circa|1820}}]]
[[File:Longwood House (16311222817).jpg|thumb|[[Longwood House]], Saint Helena, site of Napoleon's captivity]]
Napoleon was held in British custody and transferred to the island of [[Saint Helena]] in the Atlantic Ocean, {{convert|1870|km|nmi|0|abbr=on}} from the west coast of Africa. Napoleon and 27 followers arrived at [[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]] in October 1815 on board [[HMS Northumberland (1798)|HMS ''Northumberland'']]. The prisoner was guarded by a garrison of 2,100 soldiers while a squadron of 10 ships continuously patrolled the waters to prevent escape.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=13-34}} In the following years, there were rumours of escape plots, but no serious attempts were made.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=71-74}}

Napoleon stayed for two months at a pavilion in [[Briars, Saint Helena|Briars]] before he was moved to [[Longwood House]], a 40-room wooden bungalow. The location and interior of the house were damp, windswept, rat-infested and unhealthy.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xa2qKbxgWAC&q=Longwood+House&pg=PA272  |last=Hibbert |first=Christopher |title=Napoleon's Women |date=2003 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-32499-0 |page=272 |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227173032/https://books.google.com/books?id=9xa2qKbxgWAC&q=Longwood+House&pg=PA272#v=snippet&q=Longwood%20House&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=39-41, 90}} ''[[The Times]]'' published articles insinuating the [[Liverpool ministry|British government]] was trying to hasten his death. Napoleon often complained of his living conditions in letters to the island's governor [[Hudson Lowe]]{{sfnp|Schom|1997|pp=769–770}} while his attendants complained of "colds, [[catarrh]]s, damp floors and poor provisions".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i2I-AQAAMAAJ&q=Longwood+House&pg=PA402  |title=Two Days at Saint Helena |journal=The Spirit of the English Magazines |publisher=[[Monroe and Francis]] |date=1832  |page=402 |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227173224/https://books.google.com/books?id=i2I-AQAAMAAJ&q=Longwood+House&pg=PA402#v=snippet&q=Longwood%20House&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

Napoleon insisted on imperial formality. When he held a dinner party, men were expected to wear military dress and "women [appeared] in evening gowns and gems. It was an explicit denial of the circumstances of his captivity".<ref>{{cite web |title=A Journey to St. Helena, Home of Napoleon's Last Days |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/journey-st-helen-home-napoleon-last-days-180971638/ |access-date=18 March 2021 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303061019/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/journey-st-helen-home-napoleon-last-days-180971638/ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=44-46, 64-67}} He formally received visitors, read, and dictated his memoirs and commentaries on military campaigns.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=43-44}} He studied English under [[Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases]] for a few months but gave up as he was poor at languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleons-english-lessons/ |last=Hicks |first=Peter |title=Napoleon's English Lessons  |website=Napoleon.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918214137/https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleons-english-lessons/ |archive-date=18 September 2016 | url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|p=41}}

Napoleon circulated reports of poor treatment in the hope that public opinion would force the allies to revoke his exile on Saint Helena.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=64-67}} Under instructions from the government, Lowe cut Napoleon's expenditure, refused to recognize him as a former emperor, and made his supporters sign a guarantee they would stay with him indefinitely.<ref name="Lowe2">{{harvp|McLynn|1997|p=642}}</ref>{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=64-67}} Accounts of Napoleon's treatment led in March 1817 to a debate in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] where [[Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland]] made a call for a public inquiry.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|p=64}}

{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Custody of Napoleon Buonaparte Act 1816
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title            = An Act for the more effectually detaining in Custody Napoleon Buonaparté.
| year                  = 1816
| citation              = [[56 Geo. 3]]. c. 22
| introduced_commons    =
| introduced_lords      =
| territorial_extent    =
| royal_assent          = 11 April 1816
| commencement          = 11 April 1816
| expiry_date           =
| repeal_date           = 5 August 1873
| amends                =
| replaces              =
| amendments            =
| repealing_legislation = [[Statute Law Revision Act 1873]]
| related_legislation   =
| status                = Repealed
| legislation_history   =
| theyworkforyou        =
| millbankhansard       =
| original_text         =
| revised_text          =
| use_new_UK-LEG        =
| UK-LEG_title          =
| collapsed             = yes
}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Intercourse with Saint Helena Act 1816
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title            = An Act for regulating the Intercourse with the Island of Saint Helena, during the time Napoleon Buonaparté shall be detained there; and for indemnifying persons in the cases therein mentioned.
| year                  = 1816
| citation              = [[56 Geo. 3]]. c. 23
| introduced_commons    =
| introduced_lords      =
| territorial_extent    =
| royal_assent          = 11 April 1816
| commencement          = 11 April 1816
| expiry_date           =
| repeal_date           = 5 August 1873
| amends                =
| replaces              =
| amendments            =
| repealing_legislation = [[Statute Law Revision Act 1873]]
| related_legislation   =
| status                = Repealed
| legislation_history   =
| theyworkforyou        =
| millbankhansard       =
| original_text         =
| revised_text          =
| use_new_UK-LEG        =
| UK-LEG_title          =
| collapsed             = yes
}}

In mid-1817, Napoleon's health worsened. His physician, [[Barry O'Meara]], diagnosed chronic [[hepatitis]] and warned Lowe that he could die from the poor climate and lack of exercise. Lowe thought O'Meara was exaggerating and dismissed him in July 1818.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=93-97}} In November 1818, the allies announced that Napoleon would remain a prisoner on Saint Helena for life. When he learnt the news, he became depressed and more isolated, spending longer periods in his rooms which further undermined his health.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=103-105}}{{sfnp|Zamoyski|2018|pages=638–639}} Much of his entourage left Saint Helena including Las Cases in December 1816, General Gaspard Gourgaud in March 1818 and [[Albine de Montholon]]—who was possibly Napoleon's lover—in July 1819.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=82-89, 90-93}} In September 1819, two priests and physician [[François Carlo Antommarchi]] joined Napoleon's retinue.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|p=105}}

===Death===
{{See also|Death mask of Napoleon|Retour des cendres|Napoleon's tomb|Death of Napoleon I|Bicentenary of the death of Napoleon I}}
[[File:Napoleone Bonaparte's Tomb.jpg|thumb|[[Napoleon's tomb]] at {{lang|fr|[[Les Invalides]]|italic=no}} in Paris]]

Napoleon's health continued to worsen, and in March 1821 he was confined to bed. In April he wrote two wills declaring that he had been assassinated by the "English [[oligarchy]]", that the Bourbons would fall, and that his son would rule France. He left his fortune to 97 legatees and asked to be buried by the Seine.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=108-13}} On 3 May he was given the [[last rites]] but could not take communion due to his illness.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|p=115}} He died on 5 May 1821 at age 51. His last words, variously recorded by those present, were either ''France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine'' ("France, the army, head of the army, Joséphine"),<ref name="McLynn6552">{{harvp|McLynn|1997|p=655}}</ref><ref>Roberts, ''Napoleon'' (2014) 799–801</ref> or ''qui recule''...''à la tête d'armée'' ("who retreats... at the head of the army"){{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=115, 282n82}} or "France, my son, the Army."{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=115, 282n82}}

Antommarchi and the British wrote separate autopsy reports, each concluding that Napoleon had died of internal bleeding caused by [[stomach cancer]], the disease that had killed his father.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=120-23}}<ref name="Lugli-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Lugli |first1=Alessandro |last2=Carneiro |first2=Fatima |display-authors=1 |date=4 March 2021 |title=The gastric disease of Napoleon Bonaparte: brief report for the bicentenary of Napoleon's death on St. Helena in 1821 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00428-021-03061-1 |journal=Virchows Archiv |volume=2021 |issue=479 |pages=1055–1060 |doi=10.1007/s00428-021-03061-1 |pmid=33661330 |pmc=8572813 |via=Springer |access-date=28 November 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227173042/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00428-021-03061-1 |url-status=live}}</ref> A later theory, based on high concentrations of [[arsenic]] found in samples of Napoleon's hair, held that Napoleon had died of [[arsenic poisoning]]. However, subsequent studies also found high concentrations of arsenic in hair samples from Napoleon's childhood and from his son and Joséphine. Arsenic was widely used in medicines and products such as hair creams in the 19th century.<ref name="cullen1562">{{cite book |last=Cullen |first=William |title=Is Arsenic an Aphrodisiac? |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-85404-363-7}}, pp. 148-61</ref>{{sfnp|Hindmarsh|Savory|2008|p=2092}} A 2021 study by an international team of gastrointestinal pathologists once again concluded that Napoleon died of stomach cancer.<ref name="Lugli-2021" />

Napoleon was buried with military honours in the [[Valley of the Tomb|Valley of the Geraniums]].{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=126-27}}<ref name="McLynn6552" /> Napoleon's heart and intestines were removed and sealed inside his coffin. [[Napoleon's penis]] was allegedly removed during the autopsy and sold and exhibited. In 1840, the [[second Melbourne ministry|British government]] gave [[Louis Philippe I]] permission to return Napoleon's remains to France. Napoleon's body was exhumed and found to be well preserved as it had been sealed in four coffins (two of metal and two of mahogany) and placed in a masonry tomb.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=141, 195-99}} On 15 December 1840, a [[state funeral]] was held in Paris with 700,000-1,000,000 attendees who lined the route of the funeral procession to the chapel of [[Les Invalides]]. The coffin was later placed in the cupola in St Jérôme's Chapel, where it remained until [[Napoleon's tomb]], designed by [[Louis Visconti]], was completed.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|pp=216-19, 225}} In 1861, during the reign of [[Napoleon III]], his remains were entombed in a [[sarcophagus]] in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2018|p=235}}