Editing Lydia (section)

==== Early Lydian religion ====
{{main|Lydian religion}}
The Lydians in early Antiquity adhered to a religion which remains marginally attested due to the known sources covering it being largely of Greek origin, while Lydian inscriptions regarding religion are small in number{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=231}} and no Lydian corpus of ritual texts like the Hittite ritual tablets have been recovered.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=236}}

Despite the small size of the recorded Lydian corpus, the various inscriptions relating to religion date from {{c.|650}} to {{c.|330-325 BC}}, thus covering the period beginning with the establishment of the Mermnad dynasty under Gyges and ending with the aftermath of the Macedonian conquest under Alexander III and the beginning of the Hellenistic period.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=231-231}} Based on limited evidence, Lydian religious practices were centred around the fertility of nature, as was common among ancient societies which depended on the successful cultivation of land.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=236}}

The early Lydian religion exhibited strong connections to [[Anatolian peoples|Anatolian]] as well as [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek]] traditions,{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=231}} and its pantheon was composed of native Lydian deities who were reflexes of earlier Aegean-Balkan ones, as well as [[Anatolian peoples|Anatolian]] deities, the latter of whom held lesser roles.{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=137}}

Although Lydia had been conquered by the Achaemenid Empire in {{c.|547 BC}}, native Lydian traditions were not destroyed by Persian rule, and most Lydian inscriptions were written during this period.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=232}}

The Lydian religion was [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] in nature and was composed of a number of deities:{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=231}}
*unlike traditionally Anatolian pantheons but similarly to the [[Phrygians|Phrygian]] one, the Lydian pantheon was headed by the goddess Artimus ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤠𐤭𐤯𐤦𐤪𐤰𐤮}}}}), who was a deity of wild nature as well as the Lydian variant of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose other reflexes included the Greek [[Artemis]] ({{lang|grc|Αρτεμις}}){{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=186}} and the Phrygian Artimis:{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=154}} Artimus is the most well-attested Lydian deities both in the Lydian corpus and archaeologically;{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=240}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=156}}
*the identity of the figure of Qaλdãns or Qaλiyãns ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤲𐤷𐤣𐤵𐤫𐤮}}}}) is still uncertain, and has been variously interpreted as the Lydian king of the gods,{{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=186}} or a Moon-god who was the main masculine deity of the Lydian pantheon and the consort of Artimus,{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138}} or the Lydian equivalent of the Greek god [[Apollo]] ({{lang|grc|Απολλων}}),{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=237}} or a high status or royal title.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=237}} While ''Qldans'' was once thought to be a [[theonymic]], and referring to Apollo, it has recently become known that a Lydian coin also mentions the name ''Qλdãns'' in its legend. Thus, the earlier interpretations as a deity should be revised.<ref name="q571">{{cite journal | last=Euler | first=Katrin | last2=Sasseville | first2=David | title=Die Identität des lydischen Qλdãns und seine kulturgeschichtlichen Folgen | journal=Kadmos | volume=58 | issue=1-2 | date=2019-04-01 | issn=1613-0723 | doi=10.1515/kadmos-2019-0007 | pages=125–156}}</ref>
*The Lydian equivalent of the Greek god [[Zeus]] ({{lang|grc|Ζευς}}) and the Phrygian god Tiws was Lews ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤩𐤤𐤥𐤮}}}}) or Lefs ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤩𐤤𐤱𐤮}}}}):{{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=186}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138}} Unlike the Anatolian storm-god [[Tarḫunna|Tarḫuntas]], Lews held a less prominent role in the Lydian religion,{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138}} although his role as the bringer of rain followed the tradition surrounding the Anatolian Tarḫuntas;{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=243}}
*the goddess Lamẽtrus ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤩𐤠𐤪𐤶𐤯𐤭𐤰𐤮}}}}) was the Lydian reflex of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose Greek iteration was [[Demeter|Dēmētēr]] ({{lang|grc|Δημητηρ}});{{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=186}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138}}
*the frenzy god Pakiš ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤡𐤠𐤨𐤦𐤳}}}}) to whom was performed an [[orgia|orgiastic cult]] was also a Lydian variant of an older Aegean-Balkan god whose Greek reflex was [[Dionysus|Bakkhos]] ({{lang|grc|Βακχος}});{{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=186}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138}}
*the goddess Kufaws ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤨𐤰𐤱𐤠𐤥𐤮}}}}) or Kuwaws ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤨𐤰𐤥𐤠𐤥𐤮}}}}), referred by the Greeks as {{Transliteration|grc|Kubēbē}} ({{lang|grc|Κυβηβη}}),{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=139}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=158}} was a young{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=155-156}} goddess of [[Divine madness|divine frenzy]],{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=158-159}} as well as a prominent Lydian deity possessing an important temple in Sardis;{{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=185}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=153-154}}
*the existence of the goddess Korē ({{lang|grc|Κορη}}) is attested only during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, when the festival of Khrysanthina ({{lang|grc|Χρυσανθινα}}) was celebrated at Sardis in her honour,{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=236}} and she appears to have had some vegetative aspects;{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=236}}
*the god Sãntas ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤮𐤵𐤫𐤯𐤠𐤮}}}}), whose name corresponds to that of the Luwian [[Šanta|Šandas]] ({{lang|hlu|{{script|Hluw|𔖶𔖖𔗎𔗏𔑶𔑯𔗔𔖶}}}}),{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138-139}} might have been the consort of Kufaws;{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=154}}
**accompanying Sãntas were several lesser demon-like figures called the Mariwdas ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤪𐤠𐤭𐤦𐤥𐤣𐤠𐤮}}}}),{{sfn|Neumann|1990|p=186}}{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=138}} who were the Lydian equivalent of the deities attested in Hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions as the [[Dark Gods (Anatolian)|Marwainzi]] ({{lang|hlu|{{script|Hluw|𔖖𔗎𔗏𔘅𔖱𔗬𔓯𔖩𔓯𔖶}}}});{{sfn|Hutter|2017|p=118}}
*the goddess Maλiš ({{lang|xld|{{script|Lydi|𐤪𐤠𐤷𐤦𐤳}}}}), who corresponded to the Anatolian goddess [[Maliya]], attested in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] as {{Transliteration|hit|[[Dingir|ᴰ]]Māliya}} ({{lang|hit|{{cuneiform|ana|𒀭𒈠𒀀𒇷𒅀}}}}) and Lycian as {{Transliteration|xlc|Maliya}} ({{lang|xlc|𐊎𐊀𐊍𐊆𐊊𐊀}}),{{sfn|Oreshko|2021|p=133}}{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=242}} possessed a vegetative aspect,{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=236}} being a goddess of vegetation, especially of wine and corn.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=242}}

Because of a lack of evidence, little is known on the organisation of Lydian cults.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=244}}

Due to the meagre evidence for Lydian religious spaces, little is known about their shapes, sizes, administration, and location:{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=244}} Lydian cultic spaces ranged from small places of worship to prestigious temples of the state cult which also had a political role,{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=244}} although the evidence for them dates from after the end of Lydian independence,{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=231}} while those from the Lydian empire are primarily known from Greek literature rather than from archaeological evidence.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=232}}

The early Lydian religion possessed at least three cultic officiants, consisting of:{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=235}}
*{{Transliteration|xld|kawes}} ({{lang|xld|𐤨𐤠𐤥𐤤𐤮}}), who were priests and priestesses;
*{{Transliteration|xld|šiwraλmi-}} ({{lang|xld|𐤳𐤦𐤥𐤭𐤠𐤷𐤪𐤦-}}), who were involved in the cult of Artimus;
*{{Transliteration|xld|armτas}} ({{lang|xld|𐤠𐤭𐤪𐤴𐤠𐤮}}), who might have been prophets.

In addition to these clerical offices, the religious role of the kings among other Anatolian peoples suggests that Lydian [[king]]s were also [[Sacred king|religious high functionaries]] who participated in the cult as a representative of divine power on earth and claimed their legitimacy to rule from the gods. Anatolian and Hellenistic Greek parallels also suggest that Lydian kings might have been deified after their deaths.{{sfn|Payne|2019|p=237}}