Editing Lion (section)

==Interactions with humans==
===In zoos and circuses===
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical
|image1=Lion - melbourne zoo.jpg|caption1=Lion at [[Melbourne Zoo]]
|image2=Lion tamer (LOC pga.03749).jpg|caption2=19th-century [[etching]] of a lion tamer in a cage with lions and tigers}}
Lions are part of a group of exotic animals that have been central to zoo exhibits since the late 18th century. Although many modern zoos are more selective about their exhibits,<ref name="dc81">[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], pp. 81–82.</ref> there are more than 1,000 African and 100 Asiatic lions in zoos and wildlife parks around the world. They are considered an ambassador species and are kept for tourism, education and conservation purposes.<ref name="WAZA">{{cite web |last1= Dollinger |first1= P. |last2= Geser |first2= S. |title=Lion: In the Zoo (subpage) |work= Visit the Zoo |publisher= WAZA (World Association of Zoos and Aquariums) |url= http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/cats-1254385523/panthera-leo |access-date= 5 April 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110929135611/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/cats-1254385523/panthera-leo |archive-date= 29 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lions can live over twenty years in captivity; for example, three sibling lions at the [[Honolulu Zoo]] lived to the age of 22 in 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Aguiar|first=E.|date=2007|title=Honolulu zoo's old lion roars no more|newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/08/ln/hawaii708080394.html|access-date=4 September 2007|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033236/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/08/ln/hawaii708080394.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lum|first=C.|date=2007|title=Zoo puts end to 2 lions' suffering|newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2009/Feb/25/ln/hawaii902250384.html|access-date=29 September 2020|archive-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106104728/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2009/Feb/25/ln/hawaii902250384.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first European "zoos" spread among noble and royal families in the 13th century, and until the 17th century were called [[seraglio]]s. At that time, they came to be called [[menagerie]]s, an extension of the [[cabinet of curiosities]]. They spread from France and Italy during the [[Renaissance]] to the rest of Europe.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], pp. 19–21, 42.</ref> In England, although the seraglio tradition was less developed, lions were [[Tower of London#Menagerie|kept at the Tower of London]] in a seraglio established by [[John of England|King John]] in the 13th century;<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 20.</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Owen |first=J. |title=Medieval Lion Skulls Reveal Secrets of Tower of London "Zoo"|magazine=National Geographic Magazine |date=2005 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1103_051103_tower_lions.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051105025912/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1103_051103_tower_lions.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2005| access-date=5 September 2007}}</ref> this was probably stocked with animals from an earlier menagerie started in 1125 by [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] at his hunting lodge in [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]], where according to [[William of Malmesbury]] lions had been stocked.<ref name=Blunt15>[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 15.</ref>

Lions were kept in cramped and squalid conditions at [[London Zoo]] until a larger lion house with roomier cages was built in the 1870s.<ref name=Blunt208>[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 208.</ref> Further changes took place in the early 20th century when [[Carl Hagenbeck]] designed enclosures with concrete "rocks", more open space and a moat instead of bars, more closely resembling a natural habitat. Hagenbeck designed lion enclosures for both [[Melbourne Zoo]] and Sydney's [[Taronga Zoo]]; although his designs were popular, the use of bars and caged enclosures prevailed in many zoos until the 1960s.<ref name=dc69>[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], p. 69.</ref> In the late 20th century, larger, more natural enclosures and the use of wire mesh or laminated glass instead of lowered dens allowed visitors to come closer than ever to the animals; some attractions such as the Cat Forest/Lion Overlook of [[Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden|Oklahoma City Zoological Park]] placed the den on ground level, higher than visitors.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Grisham |first=J. |editor-first=C. E. |editor-last=Bell |title=Lion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the World's Zoos |volume=2: G–P |year=2001 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-57958-174-9 |pages=733–739}}</ref>

[[Lion taming]] has been part of both established [[circus]]es and individual acts such as [[Siegfried & Roy]]. The practice began in the early 19th century by Frenchman Henri Martin and American [[Isaac A. Van Amburgh|Isaac Van Amburgh]], who both toured widely and whose techniques were copied by a number of followers.<ref name=baratay187/> Martin composed a [[pantomime]] titled ''Les Lions de Mysore'' ("the lions of Mysore"), an idea Amburgh quickly borrowed. These acts eclipsed [[equestrianism]] acts as the central display of circus shows and entered public consciousness in the early 20th century with cinema. In demonstrating the superiority of human over animal, lion taming served a purpose similar to animal fights of previous centuries.<ref name=baratay187>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 187.</ref> The ultimate proof of a tamer's dominance and control over a lion is demonstrated by the placing of the tamer's head in the lion's mouth. The now-iconic lion tamer's chair was possibly first used by American [[Clyde Beatty]] (1903–1965).<ref>{{Cite book |first=D. |last=Feldman |author-link=David Feldman (author) |year=1993 |title=How Does Aspirin Find a Headache? |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-016923-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/howdoesaspirinfi00davi}}</ref>

===Hunting and games===
{{Main|Lion hunting}}
{{See also|Lion baiting}}
[[File:Sculpted reliefs depicting Ashurbanipal, the last great Assyrian king, hunting lions, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace of Nineveh (Irak), c. 645-635 BC, British Museum (16722183731).jpg|thumb|[[Bas-relief]] of a wounded lioness from [[Nineveh]], {{circa|645–635 BC}}]]
Lion hunting has occurred since ancient times and was often a royal tradition, intended to demonstrate the power of the king over nature. Such hunts took place in a reserved area in front of an audience. The monarch was accompanied by his men and controls were put in place to increase their safety and ease of killing. The earliest surviving record of lion hunting is an [[ancient Egypt]]ian inscription dated circa 1380 BC that mentions Pharaoh [[Amenhotep&nbsp;III]] killing 102 lions in ten years "with his own arrows". The [[Assyria]]n emperor [[Ashurbanipal]] had one of his lion hunts depicted on a sequence of [[Assyrian palace reliefs]] {{circa|640 BC}}, known as the [[Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal]]. Lions were also hunted during the [[Mughal Empire]], where Emperor [[Jahangir]] is said to have excelled at it.<ref name=Jackson156>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], pp. 156–159.</ref> In [[Ancient Rome]], lions were kept by emperors for [[Venatio|hunts]], [[Bestiarii|gladiator fights]] and [[Damnatio ad bestias|executions]].<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], p. 142.</ref>

The [[Maasai people]] have traditionally viewed the killing of lions as a rite of passage. Historically, lions were hunted by individuals, however, due to reduced lion populations, elders discourage solo lion hunts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hazzah |first1=L. |last2=Borgerhoof Mulder |first2=M. |last3=Frank |first3=L. |year=2009 |title=Lions and warriors: Social factors underlying declining African lion populations and the effect of incentive-based management in Kenya |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=142 |issue= 11|pages=2428–2437 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2009.06.006|bibcode=2009BCons.142.2428H }}</ref> During the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonisation of Africa]] in the 19th century, the hunting of lions was encouraged because they were considered pests and lion skins were sold for [[Pound sterling|£1]] each.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], p. 166.</ref> The widely reproduced imagery of the heroic hunter chasing lions would dominate a large part of the century.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 113.</ref> [[Trophy hunting]] of lions in recent years has been met with controversy, notably with the [[killing of Cecil the lion]] in mid-2015.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Capecchi |first1=Christina |last2=Rogers |first2=Katie |title=Killer of Cecil the lion finds out that he is a target now, of internet vigilantism |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 July 2015 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/30/us/cecil-the-lion-walter-palmer.html |access-date=30 July 2015 |archive-date=29 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729215743/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/30/us/cecil-the-lion-walter-palmer.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Man-eating===
[[File:Lionsoftsavo2008.jpg|thumb|The Tsavo maneaters of East Africa on display in the [[Field Museum of Natural History]] in Chicago]]
{{Further information|Man-eating animal#Lions{{!}}Man-eater lions}}
Lions do not usually hunt humans but some (usually males) seem to seek them out. One well-publicised case is the [[Tsavo maneaters]]; in 1898, 28 officially recorded workers building the [[Uganda Railway]] were taken by lions over nine months during the construction of a bridge in Kenya.<ref name=Patterson>{{cite book |last=Patterson |first=B. D. |year=2004 |title=The Lions of Tsavo: Exploring the Legacy of Africa's Notorious Man-Eaters |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-136333-4}}</ref> The hunter who killed the lions wrote a book detailing the animals' predatory behaviour; they were larger than normal and lacked manes, and one seemed to suffer from tooth decay. The infirmity theory, including tooth decay, is not favoured by all researchers; an analysis of teeth and jaws of man-eating lions in museum collections suggests that while tooth decay may explain some incidents, prey depletion in human-dominated areas is a more likely cause of lion predation on humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patterson |first=B. D. |author2=Neiburger, E. J.|author3=Kasiki, S. M. |date=2003 |title=Tooth Breakage and Dental Disease as Causes of Carnivore–Human Conflicts |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=190–196 |doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2003)084<0190:TBADDA>2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Sick or injured animals may be more prone to man-eating but the behaviour is not unusual, nor necessarily aberrant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peterhans |first1=J. C. K. |first2=T. P. | last2=Gnoske |title=The Science of Man-eating |journal=Journal of East African Natural History |volume=90 |issue=1&2 |year=2001 |pages=1–40 |doi=10.2982/0012-8317(2001)90[1:TSOMAL]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Lions' proclivity for [[Man-eating animal#Lions|man-eating]] has been systematically examined. American and Tanzanian scientists report that man-eating behaviour in rural areas of Tanzania increased greatly from 1990 to 2005. At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period. The incidents occurred near [[Selous Game Reserve]] in [[Rufiji River]] and in [[Lindi Region]] near the Mozambican border. While the expansion of villages into bush country is one concern, the authors argue conservation policy must mitigate the danger because in this case, conservation contributes directly to human deaths. Cases in Lindi in which lions seize humans from the centres of substantial villages have been documented.<ref name=Packer05>{{Cite journal |last1=Packer |first1=C. |last2=Ikanda | first2= D. |last3=Kissui| first3= B. |last4=Kushnir| first4= H. |date=2005 |title=Conservation biology: lion attacks on humans in Tanzania |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=436 |issue=7053 |pages=927–928 |doi=10.1038/436927a| pmid=16107828 |bibcode=2005Natur.436..927P |s2cid=3190757}}</ref> Another study of 1,000 people attacked by lions in southern Tanzania between 1988 and 2009 found that the weeks following the [[full moon]], when there was less moonlight, were a strong indicator of increased night-time attacks on people.<ref name=fullmoon>{{cite journal |title=Fear of Darkness, the Full Moon and the Nocturnal Ecology of African Lions |last=Packer |first=C. |journal=[[PLOS One]] |date=2011 |volume=6 |issue=7 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022285 |author2=Swanson, A. |author3=Ikanda, D. |author4=Kushnir, H. |page=e22285 |pmid=21799812 |pmc=3140494|bibcode=2011PLoSO...622285P|doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to Robert R. Frump, Mozambican refugees regularly crossing Kruger National Park, South Africa, at night are attacked and eaten by lions. Frump said thousands may have been killed in the decades after [[apartheid]] sealed the park and forced refugees to cross the park at night.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frump |first=R. R. |title=The Man-Eaters of Eden: Life and Death in Kruger National Park |year=2006 |publisher=The Lyons Press |isbn=978-1-59228-892-2}}</ref>

===Cultural significance===
{{main|Cultural depictions of lions}}
[[File:Luxor Sekhmet New Kingdom.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Granite statue of the Egyptian goddess [[Sekhmet]] from the [[Luxor Temple]], dated 1403–1365 BC, exhibited in the [[National Museum of Denmark]]]]
The lion is one of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture. It has been extensively depicted in sculptures and paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature.<ref name=Guggisberg1975/> It is considered to be the 'King of Beasts'<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], p. 7.</ref> and has symbolised power, royalty and protection.<ref name=Symbolism>{{cite book | first=Hope B. | last=Werness |year=2007 |title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |pages=254–260|isbn=978-0826419132}}</ref> Several leaders have had "lion" in their name including [[Sundiata Keita]] of the [[Mali Empire]], who was called "Lion of Mali",<ref name=Lynch/> and [[Richard the Lionheart]] of England.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], p. 133.</ref> The male's mane makes it a particularly recognisable feature and thus has been represented more than the female.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], p. 100.</ref> Nevertheless, the lioness has also had importance as a guardian.<ref name=Symbolism/>

In sub-Saharan Africa, the lion has been a common character in stories, proverbs and dances, but rarely featured in visual arts.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], p. 119.</ref>  In the [[Swahili language]], the lion is known as ''simba'' which also means "aggressive", "king" and "strong".<ref name=BCKM1993/> In parts of West and East Africa, the lion is associated with healing and provides the connection between [[Clairvoyance|seers]] and the supernatural. In other East African traditions, the lion represents laziness.<ref name=Hogarth>{{cite book |last1=Hogarth |first1=C. |last2=Butler |first2=N. |year=2004 |title=Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture |volume=1 |editor=Walter, M. N. |isbn=978-1-57607-645-3 |chapter=Animal Symbolism (Africa) |pages=3–6 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8waCmzjiD4C&pg=PA3 |url=https://archive.org/details/shamanism00mari/page/3}}</ref> In much of [[African folklore]], the lion is portrayed as having low intelligence and is easily tricked.<ref name=Lynch>{{cite book |last=Lynch |first=P. A. |year=2004 |title=African Mythology A to Z |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=63 |isbn=978-0-8160-4892-2 |chapter=Lion |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/africanmythology00lync_0/page/63}}</ref> In [[Nubia]], the lion-god [[Apedemak]] was associated with the flooding of the Nile. In [[Ancient Egypt]], lions were linked both with the sun and the waters of the Nile. Several gods were conceived as being part lion, including the war deities [[Sekhmet]] and [[Maahes]], and [[Tefnut]], the goddess of moisture..<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], pp. 107–108, 111.</ref>
[[File:Berlín Ishtar león. 02.JPG|thumb|left|Roaring and striding lion from the Throne Room of [[Nebuchadnezzar&nbsp;II]], 6th century BC, from [[Babylon]], Iraq]]
The lion was a prominent symbol in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] from [[Sumer]] up to [[Assyria]]n and [[Babylonia]]n times, where it was strongly associated with kingship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cassin |first=Elena |author-link=Elena Cassin |year=1981 |title= Le roi et le lion |journal=Revue de l'Histoire des Religions | trans-title = The King and the Lion | volume=298 |issue=198–4 |pages=355–401 |language=fr|doi=10.3406/rhr.1981.4828}}</ref> The big cat was a symbol and steed of fertility goddess [[Inanna]].<ref name=Symbolism/> Lions decorate the [[Ishtar_Gate#Ishtar_Gate_and_Processional_Way|Processional Way leading to the Ishtar Gate]] in Babylon which was built by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] in the 6th century BCE. The [[Lion of Babylon]] symbolised the power of the king and protection of the land against enemies, but was also invoked for good luck.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Watanabe|first=C. E.|year=2015|title=The symbolic role of animals in Babylon: a contextual approach to the lion, the bull and the mušḫuššu|journal=Iraq|volume=77|pages=215–224|doi=10.1017/irq.2015.17}}</ref> The constellation [[Leo (constellation)|Leo the lion]] was first recognised by the Sumerians around 4,000 years ago and is the fifth sign of the [[zodiac]]. In ancient Israel, [[Lion of Judah|a lion]] represented the [[tribe of Judah]].<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], pp. 109, 115.</ref> Lions are frequently mentioned in the [[Bible]], notably in the [[Book of Daniel]], in which the [[Daniel (biblical figure)|eponymous hero]] is forced to sleep in [[Daniel in the lions' den|the lions' den]].<ref>{{cite book |editor=Sakenfeld, K. D. |year=2008 |title=New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible |volume=3 |chapter=Lion |author=Borowski, O. |publisher=Abingdon Press|pages=669–670 |isbn=978-0687333653}}</ref>

[[File:Cowardly lion2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dorothy Gale]] meets the Cowardly Lion in ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]''. Art by [[W. W. Denslow]], 1900.]]
Indo-Persian chroniclers regarded the lion as keeper of order in the realm of animals. The [[Sanskrit]] word ''mrigendra'' signifies a lion as king of animals.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rangarajan, M. |year=2013 |title=Animals with rich histories: the case of the lions of Gir Forest, Gujarat, India |journal=History and Theory |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=109–127 |doi=10.1111/hith.10690|doi-access=free }}</ref> In India, the [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], erected by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century CE, depicts four lions standing back to back. In [[Hindu mythology]], the half-lion [[Narasimha]], an avatar of the deity [[Vishnu]], battles and slays the evil ruler [[Hiranyakashipu]]. In Buddhist art, lions are associated with both ''[[arhat]]s'' and [[bodhisattva]]s and may be ridden by the [[Manjushri]]. Though they were never native to the country, lions have played important roles in [[Chinese culture]]. Statues of the beast have guarded the entrances to the imperial palace and many religious shrines. The [[lion dance]] has been performed for over a thousand years.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], pp. 113, 119–122, 124.</ref>

In [[ancient Greece]], the lion is featured in several of [[Aesop's fables]], notably [[The Lion and the Mouse]]. In [[Greek mythology]], the [[Nemean lion]] is slain by the hero [[Heracles]] who wears its skin. [[Lancelot]] and [[Gawain]] were also heroes slaying lions in [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Lions continue to appear in modern literature such as the [[Cowardly Lion]] in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s 1900 ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]'', and in [[C. S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''. For cinema, the lion was portrayed as the ruler of animals in the 1994 [[Disney animated feature]] film ''[[The Lion King]]''.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], pp. 7, 96, 99, 103–105, 128, 135, 150, 197.</ref>
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