Editing History of Korea (section)

====19th century====
Corruption in government and social unrest prevailed after 1776. The government attempted sweeping reforms in the late 19th century, but adhered to a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname "[[Hermit kingdom|Hermit Kingdom]]". The policy had been established primarily for protection against Western [[imperialism]], but soon the Joseon dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading into [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]].{{sfn|Lee|Park|Yoon|2005|pp= 469–470}}

The destabilization of the Korean nation may be said to have begun in the period of ''Sedo Jeongchi'' ({{Korean|hangul=세도정치|hanja=勢道政治|lit=in-law politics}}) whereby, on the death of [[Jeongjo of Joseon|King Jeongjo of Joseon]] (r. 1776–1800), the 10-year-old [[Sunjo of Joseon]] (r. 1800–34) ascended the Korean throne, with the true power of the administration residing with his regent, Kim Jo-sun, as a representative of the [[Andong Kim clan]]. As a result, the disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues&nbsp;– land tax, military service, and the state granary system&nbsp;– heaped additional hardship on the peasantry. Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (''Hyangni''), who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. [[Yangban]] families, formerly well-respected for their status as a noble class and being powerful both "socially and politically", were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, or ''Hwajok'', and the boat-borne water brigands or ''Sujok'') and exploited by the elite, many poor village folk sought to pool their resources, such as land, tools, and production, to survive. Despite the government effort in bringing an end to the practice of owning slaves in 1801, slavery in Korea remained legal until 1894.<ref name="Yangban">{{cite book|last1=Feenstra|first1=Robert C.|last2=Hamilton|first2=Gary G.|title=Emergent Economies, Divergent Paths: Economic Organization and International Trade in South Korea and Taiwan|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-62209-7|page=186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nC1vk7tTdRE|access-date=21 August 2017}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

At this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well tolerated among the nobles, most notably in and around the area of Seoul.<ref>Ryu Dae Young,  "Treaties, Extraterritorial Rights, and American Protestant Missions in Late Joseon Korea." ''Korea Journal'' 43.1 (2003): 174–203.</ref> Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the [[Pungyang Jo clan]], took the lives of priests and followers, known as the [[Korean Martyrs]], dissuading membership by the upper class. The peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings of [[Choe Je-u]], (최제우, 崔濟愚, 1824–64) called "[[Donghak]]", which literally means ''Eastern Learning'', and the religion became especially popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (from foreign influences), nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing illiterate farmers to understand and accept them more readily. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during the [[Second Opium War]]. He believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the [[Jinju uprising]] led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with "misleading the people and sowing discord in society". Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains.<ref name="Religion">{{cite book|last1=Wessinger|first1=Catherine|title=The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-061194-1|pages=331–32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zgUTDAAAQBAJ|access-date=21 August 2017}}</ref>

[[Gojong of Korea]] (r. 1864–1907), enthroned at the age of 12, succeeded [[Cheoljong of Joseon]] (r. 1849–63). King Gojong's father, [[Heungseon Daewongun]] (Yi Ha-ung; 1820–98), ruled as the de facto regent and inaugurated far-ranging reforms to strengthen the central administration. Of special note was the decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance the project through additional levies on the population. Further inherited rule by a few elite ruling families was challenged by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments. In addition, ''Sowon''&nbsp;– private academies&nbsp;– which threatened to develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large landholdings, were taxed and repressed despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. Lastly, a policy of steadfast isolationism was enforced to staunch the increasing intrusion of Western thought and technology. He was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters of [[Empress Myeongseong]], also called "Queen Min".<ref name="queen min">[https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=940CE7DC1139E033A25753C1A9679D94649ED7CF Characteristics of Queen of Korea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822223055/https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=940CE7DC1139E033A25753C1A9679D94649ED7CF |date=2017-08-22 }} ''[[The New York Times]]'' 10 November 1895</ref>