Editing Witchcraft (section)

=== Europe ===
{{Main|European witchcraft}}
==== Ancient Roman world ====<!--this is a summary of [[European witchcraft#Antiquity]]-->
{{Main|European witchcraft#Antiquity}}
[[File:Caius Furius Cressinus Accused of Sorcery LACMA M.82.119.jpg|thumb|''Caius Furius Cressinus Accused of Sorcery'', [[Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours]], 1792]]
European belief in witchcraft can be traced back to [[classical antiquity]], when concepts of [[magic and religion]] were closely related. During the [[Ancient Roman religion|pagan]] era of [[ancient Rome]], there were laws against harmful magic.<ref name="Dickie-2003">{{cite book |last1=Dickie |first1=Matthew |title=Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |pages=138–142}}</ref> According to [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], the [[5th century BC|5th century BCE]] laws of the [[Twelve Tables]] laid down penalties for uttering harmful incantations and for stealing the fruitfulness of someone else's crops by magic.<ref name="Dickie-2003"/> The only recorded trial involving this law was that of [[Gaius Furius Cresimus]].<ref name="Dickie-2003"/>

The [[Classical Latin]] word {{lang|la|veneficium}} meant both poisoning and causing harm by magic (such as magic potions), although ancient people would not have distinguished between the two.{{sfnp|Hutton|2017|pp=59–66}} In 331&nbsp;BCE, a deadly epidemic hit Rome and at least 170 women were executed for causing it by ''veneficium''. In 184–180 BCE, another epidemic hit Italy, and about 5,000 were executed for ''veneficium''.{{sfnp|Hutton|2017|pp=59–66}} If the reports are accurate, writes [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton]], "then the [[Roman Republic|Republican Romans]] hunted witches on a scale unknown anywhere else in the ancient world".{{sfnp|Hutton|2017|pp=59–66}}

Under the ''[[Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis]]'' of 81&nbsp;BCE, killing by ''veneficium'' carried the death penalty. During the early [[Roman Empire|Imperial era]], the ''Lex Cornelia'' began to be used more broadly against other kinds of magic,{{sfnp|Hutton|2017|pp=59–66}} including sacrifices made for evil purposes. The magicians were to be burnt at the stake.<ref name="Dickie-2003"/>

Witch characters—women who work powerful evil magic—appear in ancient Roman literature from the first century BCE onward. They are typically [[hag]]s who chant harmful incantations; make poisonous potions from herbs and the body parts of animals and humans; sacrifice children; raise the dead; can control the natural world; can shapeshift themselves and others into animals; and invoke underworld deities and spirits. They include [[Lucan]]'s [[Erichtho]], [[Horace]]'s [[Epodes (Horace)|Canidia]], [[Ovid]]'s Dipsas, and [[Apuleius]]'s [[The Golden Ass|Meroe]].{{sfnp|Hutton|2017|pp=59–66}}

====Early modern and contemporary Europe====
[[File:Witches apprehended..., 1613 Wellcome M0016701.jpg|thumb|A 1613 English pamphlet showing "Witches apprehended, examined and executed"]]
{{citations needed section|date=October 2023}}
By the [[early modern period]], major [[witch hunts]] and [[witch trials in the early modern period|witch trials]] began to take place in Europe, partly fueled by religious tensions, societal anxieties, and economic upheaval. One influential text was the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'', a 1486 treatise that provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. Witches were typically seen as people who caused harm or misfortune through [[black magic]], and were sometimes believed to have made a [[Deal with the Devil|pact with the Devil]].{{sfnp|Ehrenreich|English|2010|pp=[https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/29/mode/2up 29], [https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/54/mode/2up 54]}} Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by neighbors and followed from social tensions. Accusations were often made against marginalized individuals, women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. Women made accusations as often as men. The common people believed that magical healers (called '[[cunning folk]]' or 'wise people') could undo bewitchment. [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton]] says that magical healers were sometimes denounced as witches themselves, "but seem to have made up a minority of the accused in any area studied".{{sfnp|Hutton|2017|pp=24–25}} The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people. This dark period of history reflects the confluence of [[superstition]], fear, and authority, as well as the societal tendency to find [[scapegoats]] for complex problems. A [[Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period|feminist interpretation of the witch trials]] is that [[Misogyny|misogynist]] views led to the association of women and malevolent witchcraft.{{sfnp|Ehrenreich|English|2010|pp=[https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/29/mode/2up 29], [https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/54/mode/2up 54]}}

During the 16th century and mid 18th century Scotland had 4000-6000 prosecutions against accused witches, a much higher rate then the European average.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford companion to Scottish history|isbn=0-19-211696-7|pages=644–645}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart Scotland|page=32|isbn=978-1-4051-5477-2 |last1=Cartwright |first1=Kent |date=8 March 2010 |publisher=Wiley }}</ref>

[[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] also experienced its own iteration of witchcraft trials during the 17th century. Witches were often accused of [[Goetia|sorcery]] and engaging in [[Supernatural|supernatural activities]], leading to their [[excommunication]] and execution. The blending of [[ecclesiastical]] and [[Secularism|secular]] jurisdictions in Russia's approach to witchcraft trials highlighted the intertwined nature of religious and political power during that time. As the 17th century progressed, the fear of witches shifted from mere superstition to a tool for political manipulation, with accusations used to target individuals who posed threats to the ruling elite.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zguta |first=Russell |date=1977 |title=Witchcraft Trials in Seventeenth-Century Russia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1856344 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=82 |issue=5 |pages=1187–1207 |doi=10.2307/1856344 |jstor=1856344 |pmid=11610147 |issn=0002-8762}}</ref>

Since the 1940s, [[neopagan witchcraft]] movements have emerged in Europe, seeking to revive and reinterpret ancient pagan and mystical practices. [[Wicca]], pioneered by [[Gerald Gardner]], is the most influential. Drawing inspiration from [[ceremonial magic]], historical paganism, and the now-discredited [[witch-cult theory]], Wicca emphasizes a connection to nature, the [[Divinity|divine]], and personal growth. Similarly, [[Stregheria]] in Italy reflects a desire to reconnect with the country's pagan past. Many of these neopagans self-identify as "witches". Neopagan witchcraft in Europe encompasses a wide range of traditions.{{cn|date=October 2024}}