Editing Vitamin A (section)

==Sources==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
|-
! Food ||
μg {{abbr|RAE|retinol activity equivalent}} (2001)<ref name="DRI VitA"/>
per 100 g<ref name="USDAContent"/>
|-
| [[cod liver oil]] || 30,000
|-
| [[liver (food)|beef liver]] (cooked) || 4,970–21,145
|-
| [[liver (food)|chicken liver]] (cooked) || 4,296
|-
| [[butter]] (stick) || 684
|-
| [[cheddar cheese]] || 316
|-
| [[egg (food)|egg]] (cooked) || 140
|-
|}

Vitamin A is found in many foods.<ref name="USDAContent">{{cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?component=1106 |title=Rank order of vitamin A content in foods, retinol activity equivalent (RAE) in ug per 100 g |publisher=FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture |date=1 October 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?component=1106 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vitamin A in food exists either as preformed retinol {{ndash}} an active form of vitamin A {{ndash}} found in animal liver, dairy and egg products, and some fortified foods, or as provitamin A carotenoids, which are plant pigments digested into vitamin A after consuming carotenoid-rich plant foods, typically in red, orange, or yellow colors.<ref name=lpi/> Carotenoid pigments may be masked by [[chlorophyll]]s in dark green leaf vegetables, such as spinach. The relatively low [[bioavailability]] of plant-food carotenoids results partly from binding to proteins {{ndash}} chopping, homogenizing or cooking disrupts the plant proteins, increasing provitamin A carotenoid bioavailability.<ref name=lpi/>

[[Vegetarianism|Vegetarian]] and [[Veganism|vegan]] diets can provide sufficient vitamin A in the form of provitamin A carotenoids if the diet contains [[carrots]], [[carrot juice]], [[sweet potatoes]], green leafy vegetables such as [[spinach]] and [[kale]], and other carotenoid-rich foods. In the U.S., the average daily intake of β-carotene is in the range 2–7&nbsp;mg.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/pubs/usdandb/VitA-betaCarotene-Content.pdf#search=%22beta-carotene%22 |title=USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 |date=28 October 2015 |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217094008/https://ods.od.nih.gov/pubs/usdandb/VitA-betaCarotene-Content.pdf#search=%22beta-carotene%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some [[food fortification|manufactured foods]] and dietary supplements are sources of vitamin A or β-carotene.<ref name=lpi/><ref name="DRI VitA"/>

===Fortification===
Some countries require or recommend fortification of foods. As of January 2022, 37 countries, mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa, require food fortification of [[cooking oil]], rice, [[wheat]] flour or [[maize]] (corn) flour with vitamin A, usually as retinyl palmitate or retinyl acetate. Examples include Pakistan, oil, 11.7&nbsp;mg/kg and Nigeria, oil, 6&nbsp;mg/kg; wheat and maize flour, 2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=FortifMap>{{cite web|url=https://fortificationdata.org/map-number-of-nutrients/|title=Total number of nutrients in food vehicles, according to a country's fortification standard|website=Global Fortification Data Exchange|access-date=7 January 2022|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411123853/https://fortificationdata.org/map-number-of-nutrients/|url-status=live}}</ref> An additional 12 countries, mostly in southeast Asia, have a voluntary fortification program. For example, the government of India recommends 7.95&nbsp;mg/kg in oil and 0.626&nbsp;mg/kg for wheat flour and rice. However, compliance in countries with voluntary fortification is lower than countries with mandatory fortification.<ref name=FortifMap/> No countries in Europe or North America fortify foods with vitamin A.<ref name=FortifMap/>

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
|-
! Food
!
μg {{abbr|RAE|retinol activity equivalent}} (2001)<ref name="DRI VitA"/>
per 100 g<ref name="USDAContent"/>
|-
| [[Sweet potato]], baked, no added [[fat]]
| 957
|-
| [[Carrot]], frozen, cooked, no added fat
| 843
|-
| [[Pumpkin]], canned, cooked
| 767
|-
| [[Spinach]], fresh, cooked, no added fat
| 341
|-
| [[Kale]], fresh, cooked, no added fat
| 245
|-
|}
Other means of fortifying foods via genetic engineering have been explored. Research on rice began in 1982.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.goldenrice.org/Content3-Why/why3_FAQ.php#Inventors | title = FAQ: Who invented Golden Rice and how did the project start? | work = Goldenrice.org | access-date = 9 January 2022 | archive-date = 14 February 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214011041/https://www.goldenrice.org/Content3-Why/why3_FAQ.php#Inventors | url-status = live }}</ref> The first field trials of golden rice cultivars were conducted in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|author=LSU AgCenter Communications|date=2004|title='Golden Rice' Could Help Reduce Malnutrition|url=http://www.lsuagcenter.com/news_archive/2004/October/Headline+News/Golden+Rice+Could+Help+Malnutrition.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928171832/http://www.lsuagcenter.com/news_archive/2004/October/Headline%2BNews/Golden%2BRice%2BCould%2BHelp%2BMalnutrition.htm|archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> The result was "Golden Rice", a variety of ''[[Oryza sativa]]'' rice produced through genetic engineering to [[biosynthesis|biosynthesize]] β-carotene, a precursor of retinol, in the edible parts of rice.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kettenburg AJ, Hanspach J, Abson DJ, Fischer J | title = From disagreements to dialogue: unpacking the Golden Rice debate | journal = Sustainability Science | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 1469–1482 | date = 2018 | pmid = 30220919 | pmc = 6132390 | doi = 10.1007/s11625-018-0577-y | bibcode = 2018SuSc...13.1469K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye X, Al-Babili S, Klöti A, Zhang J, Lucca P, Beyer P, Potrykus I | title = Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm | journal = Science | volume = 287 | issue = 5451 | pages = 303–305 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10634784 | doi = 10.1126/science.287.5451.303 | s2cid = 40258379 | bibcode = 2000Sci...287..303Y }}</ref> In May 2018, regulatory agencies in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand had concluded that Golden Rice met food safety standards.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://irri.org/news/media-releases/golden-rice-meets-food-safety-standards-in-three-global-leading-regulatory-agencies|title=Golden Rice meets food safety standards in three global leading regulatory agencies|work=International Rice Research Institute – IRRI|access-date=30 May 2018|language=en-gb|archive-date=29 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529163022/http://irri.org/news/media-releases/golden-rice-meets-food-safety-standards-in-three-global-leading-regulatory-agencies|url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2021, the Philippines became the first country to officially issue the biosafety permit for commercially propagating Golden Rice.<ref>{{Cite web|vauthors=Talavera C|title=Philippines OKs GMO 'golden rice'|url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2021/07/24/2114742/philippines-oks-gmo-golden-rice|access-date=21 August 2021|website=Philstar.com|archive-date=24 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824102835/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2021/07/24/2114742/philippines-oks-gmo-golden-rice|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 July 2021|title=Filipinos soon to plant and eat Golden Rice|url=https://www.philrice.gov.ph/filipinos-soon-to-plant-and-eat-golden-rice/|access-date=21 August 2021|website=Philippine Rice Research Institute|language=en-US|archive-date=12 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612225828/https://www.philrice.gov.ph/filipinos-soon-to-plant-and-eat-golden-rice/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, in April 2023, the Supreme Court of the Philippines issued a [[Writ of Kalikasan]] ordering the Department of Agriculture to stop the commercial distribution of genetically modified rice in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |vauthors=Servallos NJ |date=20 April 2023 |title=SC issues writ vs GMO golden rice, eggplant |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/04/20/2260239/sc-issues-writ-vs-gmo-golden-rice-eggplant |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=Philippine Star |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421061822/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/04/20/2260239/sc-issues-writ-vs-gmo-golden-rice-eggplant |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Vitamin A supplementation (VAS)===
[[File:Vitamin A supplementation coverage rate (children ages 6-59 months), OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Vitamin A supplementation coverage rate (children ages 6–59 months), 2014<ref>{{cite web|title=Vitamin A supplementation coverage rate (children ages 6–59 months)|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/vitamin-a-supplementation-coverage-rate-children-ages-6-59-months|website=Our World in Data|access-date=6 March 2020|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423201341/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/vitamin-a-supplementation-coverage-rate-children-ages-6-59-months|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Delivery of oral high-dose supplements remains the principal strategy for minimizing deficiency.<ref name="UNICEF 2007, p.3">{{cite book | publisher = UNICEF | url = http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Vitamin_A_Supplementation.pdf | title = Vitamin A Supplementation: A Decade of Progress | location = New York | date = 2007 | page = 3 | isbn = 978-92-806-4150-9 | access-date = 23 January 2011 | archive-date = 31 October 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201031224103/https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Vitamin_A_Supplementation.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> As of 2017, more than 80 countries worldwide are implementing universal VAS programs targeted to children 6–59 months of age through semi-annual national campaigns.<ref name="Wirth2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wirth JP, Petry N, Tanumihardjo SA, Rogers LM, McLean E, Greig A, Garrett GS, Klemm RD, Rohner F | title = Vitamin A Supplementation Programs and Country-Level Evidence of Vitamin A Deficiency | journal = Nutrients | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | page = 190 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28245571 | pmc = 5372853 | doi = 10.3390/nu9030190 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref> Doses in these programs are one dose of 50,000 or 100,000 IU for children aged 6 to 11 months and 100,000 to 200,000 IU for children aged 12 months to five years, every four to six months.<ref name="Imdad2017"/>