Editing Troubadour (section)

==Works==

===Schools and styles===

Three main styles of Occitan lyric poetry have been identified: the ''[[trobar leu]]'' (light), ''[[trobar ric]]'' (rich), and ''[[trobar clus]]'' (closed, [[Hermeticism|hermetic]]). The first was by far the most common: the wording is straightforward and relatively simple compared to the ''ric'' and literary devices are less common than in the ''clus''. This style was the most accessible and it was immensely popular. The most famous poet of the ''trobar leu'' was [[Bernart de Ventadorn]]. The ''trobar clus'' regularly escapes modern scholarly interpretation. Words are commonly used metaphorically and symbolically and what a poem appears to be about on its surface is rarely what is intended by the poet or understood by audiences "in the know". The ''clus'' style was invented early by [[Marcabru]] but only favoured by a few masters thereafter. The ''trobar ric'' style is not as opaque as the ''clus'', rather it employs a rich vocabulary, using many words, rare words, invented words, and unusual, colourful wordings.

Modern scholars recognise several "schools" in the troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the "Marcabrunian school": [[Bernart Marti]], [[Bernart de Venzac]], [[Gavaudan]], and [[Peire d'Alvernhe]]. These poets favoured the ''trobar clus'' or ''ric'' or a hybrid of the two. They were often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems to have fallen out of favour, was the "Gascon school" of [[Cercamon]], [[Peire de Valeira]], and [[Guiraut de Calanso]]. Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed in the "old style" (''la uzansa antiga'') and Guiraut's songs were ''d'aquella saison'' ("of that time"). This style of poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from [[Gascony]] and was characterised by references to nature: leaves, flowers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon "literary fad" was unpopular in [[Provence]] in the early 13th century, harming the reputation of the poets associated with it.

In the late 13th century a school arose at [[Béziers]], once the centre of pre-Albigensian Languedoc and of the Trencavel lordships, in the 1260s–80s. Four poets epitomise this "school": [[Bernart d'Auriac]], [[Joan Esteve]], [[Joan Miralhas]], and [[Raimon Gaucelm]]. The latter three were natives of Béziers and all four lived there. All were members of the urban middle class and no courtesans: Miralhas was possibly a potter and Bernart was a ''mayestre'' (teacher). All wrote in Occitan but were supporters of the French king [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] and the French aristocracy against the native Occitan nobility. They have been described as "[[Gallicised]]". Raimon Gaucelm supported the [[Eighth Crusade]] and even wrote a ''[[planh]]'', the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of Béziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the [[Aragonese Crusade]]. The Béziers poets are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of the ability of troubadours to survive it.{{sfn|de Riquer|1975}}

===Genres===
Troubadours, at least after their style became established, usually followed some set of "rules", like those of the ''[[Leys d'amors]]'' (compiled between 1328 and 1337). Initially all troubadour verses were called simply ''vers'', yet this soon came to be reserved for only love songs and was later replaced by ''canso'', though the term lived on as an antique expression for the troubadours' early works and was even employed with a more technically meaning by the last generation of troubadours (mid-14th century), when it was thought to derive from the Latin word ''verus'' (truth) and was thus used to describe moralising or didactic pieces. The early troubadours developed many genres and these only proliferated as rules of composition came to be put in writing. The known genres are:
*''[[Alba (poetry)|Alba]]'' (morning song) – the song of a lover as dawn approaches, often with a watchman warning of the approach of a lady's jealous husband
*''[[Arlabecca]]'' – a song defined by poetic metre, but perhaps once related to the [[rebec]]
*''[[Canso (song)|Canso]]'', originally ''vers'', also ''chanso'' or ''canço'' – the love song, usually consisting of five or six [[stanza]]s with an [[envoi]]
*''[[Cobla (Occitan literary term)|Cobla esparsa]]'' – a stand-alone stanza
*''[[Comiat]]'' – a song renouncing a lover
*[[Crusade song]] (''canso de crozada'') – a song about the [[Crusades]], usually encouraging them
*''[[Dansa]]'' or ''balada'' – a lively dance song with a [[refrain]]
*''[[Descort]]'' – a song heavily discordant in verse form and/or feeling
*''[[Desdansa]]'' – a dance designed for sad occasions
*''[[Devinalh]]'' – a riddle or cryptogram
*''[[Ensenhamen]]'' – a long didactic poem, usually not divided into stanzas, teaching a moral or practical lesson
*''[[Enuig]]'' – a poem expressing indignation or feelings of insult
*''[[Escondig]]'' – a lover's apology
*''[[Estampida]]'' – a dance-like song
*''[[Gap (song)|Gap]]'' – a boasting song, often presented as a challenge, often similar to modern sports chants
*''[[Maldit]]'' – a song complaining about a lady's behaviour and character
*''[[Partimen]]'' – a poetical exchange between two or more poets in which one is presented with a dilemma by another and responds
*''[[Pastorela]]'' – the tale of the love request of a [[knight]] to a [[shepherdess]]
*''[[Planh]]'' – a lament, especially on the death of some important figure
*''[[Plazer]]'' – a poem expressing pleasure
*''[[Salut d'amor]]'' – a love letter addressed to another, not always one's lover
*''[[Serena (genre)|Serena]]'' – the song of a lover waiting impatiently for the evening (to consummate his love)
*''[[Sestina]]'' – highly structured verse form
*''[[Sirventes]]'' – a political poem or [[satire]], originally put in the mouth of a paid soldier (''sirvens'')
*[[Sonnet]] (''sonet'') – an Italian genre imported into Occitan verse in the 13th century
*''[[Tenso]]'' – a poetical debate which was usually an exchange between two poets, but could be fictional
*''[[Torneyamen]]'' – a poetical debate between three or more persons, often with a judge (like a tournament)
*''[[Viadeyra|Viadeira]]'' – a traveller's complaint

All these genres were highly fluid. A cross between a ''sirventes'' and a ''canso'' was a ''meg-sirventes'' (half-''sirventes'').{{notetag|Sometimes ''canso-sirventes'' or ''sirventes-canso'' was used. [[Bertran de Born]] uses the term ''miei sirventes''.}} A ''tenso'' could be "invented" by a single poet; an ''alba'' or ''canso'' could be written with religious significance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a ''sirventes'' may be nothing more than a political attack. The ''maldit'' and the ''comiat'' were often connected as a ''maldit-comiat'' and they could be used to attack and renounce a figure other than a lady or a lover, like a commanding officer (when combined, in a way, with the ''sirventes'').

[[Peire Bremon Ricas Novas]] uses the term ''mieja chanso'' (half song) and [[Cerverí de Girona]] uses a similar phrase, ''miga canço'', both to refer to a short ''canso'' and not a mixture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerverí's ''mig'' (or ''meig'') ''vers e miga canço'' was a ''vers'' in the new sense (a moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus combined the ''canso'' and the ''sirventes''. Among the more than one hundred works of Cerverí de Girona are many songs with unique labels, which may correspond more to "titles" than "genres", but that is debatable: ''peguesca'' (nonsense), ''espingadura'' ([[flageolet]] song), ''libel'' (legal petition), ''esdemessa'' (leap), ''somni'' (dream), ''acuyndamen'' (challenge), ''desirança'' (nostalgia), ''aniversari'' (anniversary), ''serena'' (serene).<ref>Frank M. Chambers (1985), ''An Introduction to Old Provençal Versification'', (Darby, PA: Diane Publishing, {{ISBN|0-87169-167-1}}.), pp. 195–96.</ref>

Most "Crusading songs" are classified either as ''cansos'' or ''sirventes'' but sometimes separately. Some styles became popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In [[French literature|French]], the ''alba'' became the ''[[aubade]]'', the ''pastorela'' the ''[[pastourelle]]'', and the ''partimen'' the ''[[jeu parti]]''. The ''sestina'' became popular in [[Italian literature]]. The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The ''planh'' developed out of the Latin ''[[planctus]]'' and the sonnet was stolen from the [[Sicilian School]]. The [[basse danse]] (''bassa dansa'') was first mentioned in the troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.

[[File:BnF ms. 854 fol. 135 - Le moine de Montaudon (1).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Monge de Montaudon]] receiving a [[Eurasian sparrowhawk|sparrow hawk]] as a prize for his performance in a contest]]

===Performance===
Troubadours performed their own songs. Jongleurs (performers) and ''cantaires'' (singers) also performed troubadours' songs. They could work from [[chansonnier]]s, many of which have survived, or possibly from more rudimentary (and temporary) songbooks, none of which have survived, if they even existed. Some troubadours, like [[Arnaut de Maruelh]], had their own jongleurs who were dedicated to singing their patron's work. Arnaut's ''joglar et cantaire'', probably both a singer and a messenger, who carried his love songs to his lady, was [[Pistoleta]]. The messenger was commonplace in troubadour poetry; many songs reference a messenger who will bring it to its intended ear. A troubadour often stayed with a noble patron of his own and entertained his court with his songs. Court songs could be used not only as entertainment but also as propaganda, praising the patron, mocking his enemies, encouraging his wars, teaching ethics and etiquette, and maintaining religious unity.

The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date. According to the ''vida'' of the [[Monge de Montaudon]], he received a [[Eurasian sparrowhawk|sparrow hawk]], a prized hunting bird, for his poetry from the ''cour du Puy'', some sort of poetry society associated with the court of [[Alfonso II of Aragon]]. The most famous contests were held in the twilight of the troubadours in the 14th and 15th centuries. The ''[[jocs florals]]'' held by the [[Consistori del Gay Saber]] at [[Toulouse]], by [[Peter IV of Aragon]] at [[Lleida]], and the [[Consistori de Barcelona|Consistori de la Gaya Sciència]] at [[Barcelona]] awarded floral prizes to the best poetry in various categories, judging it by its accordance with a code called the ''[[Leys d'amors]]''.

Troubadour songs are still performed and recorded today, albeit rarely.
{{Listen|filename=A Chantar2.ogg|title=A chantar m'er|description=The only existing song by a ''trobairitz'' which survives with music.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

===Music===
Troubadour songs were usually [[monophony|monophonic]]. Fewer than 300 melodies out of an estimated 2500 survive.<ref>''The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music'' edited by Stanley Sadie. Macmillan Press Ltd., London.</ref> Most were composed by the troubadours themselves. Some were set to pre-existing pieces of music. [[Raimbaut de Vaqueyras]] wrote his ''Kalenda maya'' ("The Calends of May") to music composed by jongleurs at [[Montferrat]].

===Grammars and dictionaries===
Beginning in the early 13th century, the spread of Occitan verse demanded grammars and dictionaries, especially for those whose native tongue was not Occitan, such as the Catalan and Italian troubadours, and their imitators. The production of such works only increased with the academisation of the troubadour lyric in the 14th century.
{| class="wikitable"
!Image
!Title
!Translation of title
!Author
!Date, place
!Character
|-
|[[File:Razos de Trobar.jpg|75px]]
|''Razos de trobar''
|"Explanations of composition"
|[[Raimon Vidal]]
|c. 1210
| Prose guide to poetic composition that defends the superiority of Occitan over other vernaculars. Occitan–Italian dictionary.
|-
|
|''Donatz proensals''
|"Provençal Donatus"
|[[Uc Faidit]]
|c. 1243
|An Occitan imitation of [[Latin grammar]]ian [[Aelius Donatus]]. A rhymary and Latin–Occitan dictionary designed for Italians.
|-
|
|''Doctrina de compondre dictats''
|"Doctrinal of understanding sayings"
|Anonymous,<br>possibly [[Raimon Vidal]]
|late 13th century
|A catalogue and explanation of the different poetic genres. It expands on the ''Razos'' and may be the concluding section of the ''Regles'' of Jaufre de Foixa.
|-
|[[File:Ensenhamen.PNG|75px]]
|''Lo breviari d'amors''
|"Breviary of love"
|[[Matfre Ermengau]]
|begun 1288
| A pious [[encyclopedia]], the last section of which, "Perilhos tractatz d'amor de donas, seguon qu'en han tractat li antic trobador en lurs cansos", is an Occitan grammar.
|-
|
|''Doctrina d'acort''{{notetag|Sometimes ''Doctrina de cort'': "Doctrinal of court".}}
|"Doctrinal of concordance"
|[[Terramagnino da Pisa]]
|1282–96, Sardinia
|A condensed verse adaptation of the ''Razos'', poorly preserved in the manuscripts.
|-
|[[File:Regles de Trobar.jpg|75px]]
|''Regles de trobar''{{notetag|Sometimes ''Vers e regles de trobar'': "Verses and rules of composition".}}
|"Rules of composition"
|[[Jaufre de Foixa]]
|1289–91, Sicily
| Contains many examples of troubadour verse, designed to augment the ''Razos de trobar''.
|-
|[[File:Mirall de Trobar.jpg|75px]]
|''Mirall de trobar''
|"Mirror of composition"
|[[Berenguer d'Anoia]]
|early 14th century
| Mainly covers rhetoric and errors, and is littered with examples of troubadour verse.
|-
|
|''[[Cançoneret de Ripoll]]''
|"Little Chansonnier of Ripoll"
|Anonymous
|1346, Roussillon or Cerdagne
|A [[chansonnier]] containing a unique grammar, including a catalogue of poetic genres, expands on the ''Doctrina de compondre dictats'' and the ''Leys d'amors''.
|-
|[[File:Leys d'amor, initial.jpg|75px]]
|''Leys d'amors''{{notetag|name=leys|Fully ''Las flors del Gay Saber, estiers dichas las leys d'amors'': "The flowers of the Gay Science, which are called the laws of love".}}
|"Laws of love"
|[[Guilhem Molinier]]
|1328–37, Toulouse
| First commissioned in 1323. Prose rules governing the [[Consistori del Gay Saber]] and the [[Consistori de Barcelona]].
|-
|
|''Leys d'amors''{{notetag|name=leys}}
|"Laws of love"
|Anonymous
|1337–47, Toulouse
|Verse adaptation of the prose ''Leys''.
|-
|
|''Leys d'amors''{{notetag|name=leys}}
|"Laws of love"
|[[Joan de Castellnou]]
|1355, Toulouse
|Final, expanded, prose version of the previous ''Leys''.
|-
|
|''Doctrinal de trobar''
|"Doctrinal of composition"
|[[Raimon de Cornet]]
|c. 1324<br>(before 1341)
|Dedicated to [[Peter IV of Aragon]], identical in structure to the ''Leys'' of Guilhem Molinier.
|-
|
|''Glosari''
|"Glossary"
|[[Joan de Castellnou]]
|1341
|A commentary on the ''Doctrinal de trobar''.
|-
|
|''Compendi''{{notetag|Fully ''Compendi de la conexença dels vicis que.s podon esdevenir en las dictats del Gay Saber'': "Compendium of the knowledge of the vices that can be expressed in the Gay Science".}}
|"Compendium"
|[[Joan de Castellnou]]
|before 1341
|A catalogue of all the "vices" one can commit by transgressing the ''Leys'' etc.
|-
|
|''Libre de concordances''<br>(or ''Diccionari de rims'')
|"Book of concordances"<br>(or "Dictionary of rhymes")
|[[Jaume March II]]
|1371
|An Occitan rhymary for Catalans.
|-
|
|''Torcimany''
|"Translation"
|[[Luys d'Averçó]]
|late 14th century
|A rhymary and Catalan–Occitan dictionary.
|}