Editing Theravada (section)

==Lay and monastic life==
{{See also|Buddhist monasticism}}
[[File:Young monk.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Young Burmese monk]]

===Distinction between lay and monastic life===
Traditionally, Theravāda Buddhism has observed a distinction between the practices suitable for a [[Householder (Buddhism)|lay person]] and the practices undertaken by ordained [[Bhikkhu|monks]] (in ancient times, there was a separate body of practices for nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravāda, it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] traditions, with monastic life being hailed as a superior method of achieving [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nibbana]].<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/glossary.html#Theravāda|title=Glossary of Buddhism|work=Buddhist Art and the Trade Routes|publisher=[[Asia Society]]|year=2003|access-date=17 September 2010}}</ref> The view that Theravāda, unlike other Buddhist schools, is primarily a monastic tradition has, however, been disputed.
{{blockquote|Some Western scholars have erroneously tried to claim that Mahāyāna is primarily a religion for laymen and Theravāda is a primarily monastic religion. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda have as their foundation strong monastic communities, which are almost identical in their regulations. Schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism without monastic communities of fully ordained monks and nuns are relatively recent and atypical developments, usually based on cultural and historical considerations rather than differences in fundamental doctrine. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda also provided a clear and important place for lay followers.|Ron Epstein, "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism"<ref>{{Citation |last1=Epstein |first1=Ron |year=1999 |title=Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism |journal= Vajra Bodhi Sea: A Monthly Journal of Orthodox Buddhism |pages=41–43 |url=http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Misconceptions%20about%20Buddhism.htm}}</ref>}}{{dead link|date=May 2023}}

This distinction between ordained monks and laypeople&nbsp;– as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the Pāli Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks&nbsp;– have motivated some scholars to consider Theravāda Buddhism to be composed of multiple separate traditions, overlapping though still distinct.  Most prominently, the anthropologist [[Melford Spiro]] in his work ''Buddhism and Society'' separated Burmese Theravāda into three groups: Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nibbana]], as described in the Tipitaka). He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the Pāli Canon. These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually considered non-exclusive by those who employ them.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed ''[[Merit (Buddhism)|merit-making]]'' (falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit-making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, chanting protective or scriptural verses from the [[Pali Canon]], building roads and bridges, charity to the needy and providing drinking water to strangers along roadside. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). [[Pariyatti|Study of the Pāli scriptures]] and the practice of [[Buddhist meditation|meditation]] are less common among the lay community in the past, though in the 20th century these areas have become more popular to the lay community, especially in Thailand.

[[File:Monk on pilgrimage.jpg|thumb|Thai monks on [[pilgrimage]] in their orange robes]]
A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, including [[Buddhadasa]], [[Ajahn Maha Bua]], Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, [[Ajahn Pasanno]], and [[Ajahn Jayasaro]], have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples. [[Ajahn Sumedho]], a disciple of [[Ajahn Chah]], founded the [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]] in Hertfordshire, which has a retreat center specifically for lay retreats. Sumedho extended this to Harnham in Northumberland as [[Aruna Ratanagiri]] under the present guidance of [[Ajahn Munindo]], another disciple of Ajahn Chah.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

===Lay devotee===
[[File:Vesak_in_Uttaradit_(Thailand)_1.jpg|left|thumb|The ceremony walks with lighted candles in hand around a temple on [[Vesak]]ha Puja in [[Uttaradit]], Thailand.]]
In Pāli the word for a male lay devotee is [[Upasaka]] and a female devotee is Upasika. One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. As neither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives.

In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. Theravādin monasteries have been providing free education to many children since ancient times. In fact, today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. Religious rituals and ceremonies held in a monastery are always accompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel and monks often took up the role of mediators in most disputes. Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon [[Uposatha|four times a month]]: when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times.

It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. As [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]] notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving."<ref>Bhikkhu Bodhi, ''In the Buddha's Words'', Wisdom Publications 2005; p. 376.</ref>

In the modern era, it is now common for lay disciples to practice meditation, attend lay meditation centers and even aim for awakening. The impetus for this trend began in Myanmar and was supported by prime minister [[U Nu]] who himself established the International Meditation Center (IMC) in [[Yangon]].<ref name=":9">Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia: Second Edition, p. 178.</ref> Modern lay teachers such as [[Ba Khin|U Ba Khin]] (who was also the Accountant General of the [[Post-independence Burma, 1948–62|Union of Burma]]) promoted meditation as part of a laypersons daily routine.<ref name=":9" /> According to Donald K Swearer, another development in modern Theravāda is "the formation of lay Buddhist associations that have partially assumed the social service responsibilities formerly associated with the monastery".<ref name=":9" /> These include social service and activist organizations such as the [[Young Men's Buddhist Association]] of Colombo, the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress, the [[Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement|Sarvodaya Shramadana]] of A. T. Ariyaratne, the NGO's founded by [[Sulak Sivaraksa]] such as Santi Pracha.<ref>Swearer, Donald K. ''The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia'': Second Edition, p. 187.</ref>

===Monastic vocation===
[[Image:Na_uyana_aranya_cave_kuti.jpg|thumb|A cave ''kuti'' (hut) in the Sri Lankan forest monastery [[Na Uyana Aranya]]]]
Theravāda sources dating back to medieval Sri Lanka (2nd century BCE to 10th century CE) such as the [[Mahavamsa]] show that monastic roles in the tradition were often seen as being in a polarity between urban monks ([[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]: {{Transliteration|si|khaamawaasii}}, Pāli: ''gāmavasī'') on one end and rural forest monks ([[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]: {{Transliteration|si|aranyawaasii}}, Pali: ''araññavasi, nagaravasi'', also known as ''Tapassin'') on the other.<ref>Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, pp. 12, 15.</ref> The ascetic focused monks were known by the names ''Pamsukulikas'' (rag robe wearers) and ''Araññikas'' (forest dwellers).<ref>Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja, The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets (Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology), 1984, p. 55.</ref>

The Mahavamsa mentions forest monks associated with the [[Mahavihara]]. The Pāli [[Dhammapada]] Commentary mentions another split based on the "duty of study" and the "duty of contemplation".<ref>Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, p. 12.</ref> This second division has traditionally been seen as corresponding with the city – forest split, with the city monks focusing on the vocation of books (''ganthadhura'') or learning (''pariyatti'') while the forest monks leaning more towards meditation (''vipassanadhura'') and practice (''patipatti'').<ref name=":0">Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja, The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets (Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology), 1984, pp. 53, 58.</ref> However this opposition is not consistent, and urban monasteries have often promoted meditation while forest communities have also produced excellent scholars, such as the [[Island Hermitage]] of [[Nyanatiloka]].<ref name=":0" />

Scholar monks generally undertake the path of studying and preserving Theravāda's [[Pali literature|Pāli literature]].<ref>Prapod Assavavirulhakarn, The Ascendency of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia 1990, p. 258.</ref> Forest monks tend to be the minority among Theravāda sanghas and also tend to focus on [[asceticism]] (''[[dhutanga]]'') and meditative praxis.<ref>Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, p. 9.</ref> They view themselves as living closer to the ideal set forth by the Buddha, and are often perceived as such by lay folk, while at the same time often being on the margins of the Buddhist establishment and on the periphery of the social order.<ref>Taylor, J.L. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, pp. 9–13.</ref>

While this divide seems to have been in existence for some time in the Theravāda school, only in the 10th century is a specifically forest monk monastery, mentioned as existing near [[Anuradhapura]], called "Tapavana".<ref>Taylor, J.L. ''Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study'', p. 15.</ref> This division was then carried over into the rest of Southeast Asia as Theravāda spread.

Today there are forest based traditions in most Theravāda countries, including the [[Sri Lankan Forest Tradition]], the [[Thai Forest Tradition]] as well as lesser known forest based traditions in Burma and Laos, such as the Burmese forest based monasteries (''taw"yar'') of the [[Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa|Pa Auk Sayadaw]].<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.paaukforestmonastery.org/about-us|title=About Us|website=Pa-Auk Tawya}}</ref> In Thailand, forest monks are known as ''phra thudong'' (ascetic wandering monks) or ''phra thudong kammathan'' (wandering ascetic meditator).<ref>Tiyavanich, Kamala, nForest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand p1.</ref>

===Ordination===
[[File:Candidate for the Buddhist priesthood is ordaining to is a monk in a church.jpg|thumb|upright|Candidates for the Buddhist monkhood being ordained as monks in Thailand]]

The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, which is calculated from conception. Those under this age can perform traditional ceremonies such as ''[[shinbyu]],'' in Myanmar, in order to ordain as novices ([[śrāmaṇera|sāmaṇera]]). Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe the Ten Precepts. While there is no explicit minimum age for novices prescribed in the scriptures, it is traditionally accepted that boys as young as seven can be accepted for ordination. This tradition echoes the story of the Buddha's son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Both monks and nuns are expected to adhere to a specific code of discipline, of which monks follow 227 rules, and nuns follow 311.

In most Theravāda countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Myanmar, young men typically ordain for the retreat during [[Vassa]], the three-month monsoon season, though shorter or longer periods of ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexible among Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill health.

Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay his gratitude" to his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination is dedicated for their well-being. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more mature and suitable husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally offered peasant boys an opportunity to receive free education in temple schools with sponsorship and accommodation.

In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practised, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon but not condemned. The continuing influence of the [[caste system in Sri Lanka]] plays a role in the taboo against temporary or permanent ordination as a bhikkhu in some orders. Though Sri Lankan orders are often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

For those born in Western countries who wish to become Buddhist monks or nuns, it is possible to undertake the lifestyle in their home countries, among other Buddhist monastics in Western countries, or to travel and take up residence in a Buddhist monastery in Asian countries such as Sri Lanka or Thailand. In countries where Buddhism is deeply rooted, it can often be easier to adhere to the lifestyle of a monk or nun, as it requires considerable discipline to successfully live by the non-secular rules and regulations for which Buddhist practices are known. For instance, Theravāda monastics are typically required to abstain from activities such as working, handling money, listening to music and cooking. Such obligations can be especially challenging in non-Buddhist societies.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Some of the more well-known Theravādin monks are [[Ajahn Mun]], [[Ajahn Chah]], [[Ledi Sayadaw]], [[Webu Sayadaw]], [[Narada Maha Thera]], Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, [[Buddhadasa]], [[Mahasi Sayadaw]], [[Nyanatiloka Mahathera]], [[Nyanaponika Thera]], [[Preah Maha Ghosananda]], [[U Pandita]], [[Ajahn Sumedho]], [[Ajahn Khemadhammo]], [[Ajahn Brahm]], [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]], [[Ajahn Amaro]], [[Ajahn Sucitto]], [[Ajahn Jayasaro]], [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]], [[Walpola Rahula Thero]], [[Henepola Gunaratana]], [[Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa]], Bhante Yogavacara Rahula, [[Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro]], [[K. Sri Dhammananda]], [[Sayadaw U Tejaniya]] and [[Bhikkhu Analayo]].

===Monastic practices===
[[File:EveningPrayers01a.jpg|thumb|upright|A Buddhist Monk chants evening prayers inside a monastery located near the town of [[Kantharalak]], Thailand.]]

The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries within Theravāda. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.

In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3-month vassa period, the monk will wake up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed on alms-round and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from the bowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dhamma study and meditation. Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dhamma talk to the visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the traditional [[Eight precepts|eight Buddhist precepts]].

The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex than the life of the forest monk. In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preaching ''bana,''<ref>Mahinda Deegalle, ''Popularizing Buddhism: Preaching as Performance in Sri Lanka'', State University of New York Press, Albany,  2006.</ref> accepting alms, officiating funerals, teaching ''dhamma'' to adults and children in addition to providing social services to the community.

After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they feel inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along.  These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.

The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free, they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two and seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animals live in order to aid their meditation.

Those monks who have been able to achieve a high level of attainment will be able to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment.

===Bhikkhunis===
{{See also|Women in Buddhism|Ordination of women in Buddhism|Criticism of Buddhism#Women in Buddhism}}
[[File:Dhammananda09.jpg|thumb|[[Dhammananda Bhikkhuni]]]]
A few years after the arrival of [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], the bhikkhu [[Sanghamitta|Saṅghamittā]], who is also believed to have been the daughter of Ashoka, came to Sri Lanka. She ordained the first nuns in Sri Lanka. In 429, by request of China's emperor, nuns from [[Anuradhapura]] were sent to China to establish the order there, which subsequently spread across East Asia. The [[prātimokṣa]] of the nun's order in [[East Asian Buddhism]] is the [[Dharmaguptaka]], which is different from the prātimokṣa of the current Theravāda school; the specific ordination of the early Sangha in Sri Lanka not known, although the Dharmaguptaka sect originated with the Sthāvirīya as well.

The nun's order subsequently died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century and in Burma in the 13th century. It had already died out around the 10th century in other Theravādin areas. Novice ordination has also disappeared in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as renunciates in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries.  These "precept-holders" live in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular, the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better education than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://lhamo.tripod.com/4ordin.htm|title=Resources on Women's Ordination|publisher=Lhamo.tripod.com|access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref> In Tibet there is currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but the [[Dalai Lama]] has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination.

In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan women were ordained fully as Theravāda bhikkhunis by a team of Theravāda monks in concert with a team of Korean nuns in India. There is disagreement among Theravāda [[vinaya]] authorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. The [[Dambulla]] chapter of the [[Siam Nikaya]] in Sri Lanka also carried out a nun's ordination at this time, specifically stating their ordination process was a valid Theravādin process where the other ordination session was not.{{sfn|Salgado|2013|pp=166–169}} This chapter has carried out ordination ceremonies for hundreds of nuns since then.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} This has been criticized by leading figures in the Siam Nikaya and [[Amarapura Nikaya]], and the governing council of [[Buddhism in Myanmar]] has declared that there can be no valid ordination of nuns in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree with this.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kawanami|first1=Hiroko|date=2007|title=The bhikkhunī ordination debate: global aspirations, local concerns, with special emphasis on the views of the monastic community in Myanmar. Kawanami, H. 11/2007 In|journal=Buddhist Studies Review|volume=24|issue=2|pages=226–244|doi=10.1558/bsrv.v24i2.226}}</ref>

In 1997 [[Dhamma Cetiya Vihara]] in Boston was founded by Ven. Gotami of Thailand, then a 10 precept nun; when she received full ordination in 2000, her dwelling became America's first Theravāda Buddhist bhikkhuni vihara.

A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen, became the first woman to receive the going-forth ceremony of a novice (and the gold robe) in Thailand, in 2002.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/thailand/ordination.shtml|title=Socially Engaged Buddhism in Thailand: Ordination of Thai Women Monks|last=Sommer, PhD|first=Jeanne Matthew|publisher=Warren Wilson College|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204105319/http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/thailand/ordination.shtml|archive-date=4 December 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref> On 28 February 2003, [[Dhammananda Bhikkhuni]], formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination as a Theravāda nun.<ref name="thebuddhadharma">{{Citation |url=http://www.thebuddhadharma.com/issues/2003/summer/dhammananda.html|title=Ordained at Last|date=28 February 2003|publisher=Thebuddhadharma.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040206044757/http://www.thebuddhadharma.com/issues/2003/summer/dhammananda.html|archive-date=6 February 2004|url-status=dead|access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref>
Dhammananda Bhikkhuni was ordained in Sri Lanka.<ref name="bhikkhunis">{{Citation |url=http://www.nationalcatholicreporter.org/globalpers/gp051403.htm|title=Bhikkhunis: Ordaining Buddhist Women|author=Rita C. Larivee, SSA|date=14 May 2003|publisher=Nationalcatholicreporter.org|access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref> The Thai Senate has reviewed and revoked the secular law passed in 1928 banning women's full ordination in Buddhism as unconstitutional for being counter to laws protecting freedom of religion. However, Thailand's two main Theravāda Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya, have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks.

In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravāda nuns, the first time such ordination had occurred in Australia.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.wa.buddhistcouncil.org.au/home/therevadan-bhikkhunni-ordination-in-western-australia/|title=Thai monks oppose West Australian ordination of Buddhist nuns|publisher=Wa.buddhistcouncil.org.au|access-date=19 November 2010|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006003315/http://www.wa.buddhistcouncil.org.au/home/therevadan-bhikkhunni-ordination-in-western-australia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October 2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and Hasapanna were ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full accordance with the Pāli Vinaya.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.dhammasara.org.au/bhikkhuni-ordination.html|title=Bhikkhuni Ordination|date=22 October 2009|publisher=Dhammasara.org.au|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219112534/http://www.dhammasara.org.au/bhikkhuni-ordination.html|archive-date=19 February 2011|url-status=dead|access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref>

In 2010, in the US, four novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai Theravāda tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony. [[Henepola Gunaratana]] and other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere.<ref name="Boorstein">{{Citation |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/sylvia-boorstein/ordination-of-bhikkhunis-_b_702921.html#s133846|title=Ordination of Bhikkhunis in the Theravada Tradition|last=Boorstein|first=Sylvia|author-link=Sylvia Boorstein|date=25 May 2011|work=Huffington Post}}</ref>

The first bhikkhuni ordination in Germany, the ordination of German woman Samaneri Dhira, occurred on 21 June 2015 at Anenja Vihara.<ref>[http://www.bhikkhuni.net/news/ Bhikkhuni Happenings – Alliance for Bhikkhunis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629140312/http://www.bhikkhuni.net/news/ |date=29 June 2015 }}. Bhikkhuni.net. Retrieved 28 June 2015.</ref>

In Indonesia, the first Theravāda ordination of bhikkhunis in Indonesia after more than a thousand years occurred in 2015 at Wisma Kusalayani in Lembang, [[Bandung]] in [[West Java]].<ref name="bhikkhuni1">{{Cite web |title=First Theravada Ordination of Bhikkhunis in Indonesia After a Thousand Years |url=https://www.bhikkhuni.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/FirstTheravadaordinationofbhikkhunisinIndonesiaAfteraThousandYears.pdf |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=www.bhikkhuni.net}}</ref> Those ordained included Vajiradevi Sadhika Bhikkhuni from Indonesia, Medha Bhikkhuni from Sri Lanka, Anula Bhikkhuni from Japan, Santasukha Santamana Bhikkhuni from Vietnam, Sukhi Bhikkhuni and Sumangala Bhikkhuni from Malaysia, and Jenti Bhikkhuni from Australia.<ref name="bhikkhuni1" />

===Monastic orders===
[[File:Thai Buddhist monk blesses.jpg|thumb|Thai monks blessing the [[Bhumibol Adulyadej|King of Thailand]] in Wat Nong Wong, [[Sawankhalok District|Amphoe Sawankhalok]], [[Sukhothai Province|Sukhothai]], Thailand]]

Theravāda monks typically belong to a particular ''[[nikaya]]'', variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines, but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination, typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks that established a new ordination tradition within a particular country or geographic area.

In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into nikayas. Some Theravāda Buddhist countries appoint or elect a [[sangharaja]], or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest ranking or seniormost monk in a particular area, or from a particular nikaya.  The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand.  Myanmar and Cambodia ended the practice of appointing a sangharaja for some time, but the position was later restored, though in Cambodia it lapsed again.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}
*''[[Bangladesh]]'':
** [[Mahasthabir Nikaya]]
** [[Sangharaj Nikaya]]
*''[[Myanmar]]'' (Myanmar):
** [[Dwara Nikaya]]
** [[Hngettwin Nikaya]]
** [[Shwekyin Nikaya]]
** [[Thudhamma Nikaya]]
*''[[Sri Lanka]]'':
** [[Amarapura Nikaya]] has many Sub orders including
*** Dharmarakshitha
*** Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)
*** Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)
** [[Ramanna Nikaya|Ramañña Nikaya]]
*** Delduwa
*** [[Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha]] (or 'Galduwa Tradition')
** [[Siam Nikaya]]
*** Asgiriya
*** Malwaththa
*** Rohana
*** Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya)
*''Thailand and Cambodia''
** [[Dhammayuttika Nikaya]]
** [[Maha Nikaya]]