Editing Tattoo (section)

== Associations ==

=== Historical associations ===
[[File:Body art, 1907 black n white.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Maud Wagner|Mrs. M. Stevens Wagner]] with arms and chest covered in tattoos, 1907]]
Among [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] societies, tattoos had various functions. Among men, they were strongly linked to the widespread practice of [[head-hunting]] raids. In head-hunting societies, like the [[Ifugao people|Ifugao]] and [[Dayak people]], tattoos were records of how many heads the warriors had taken in battle, and were part of the [[initiation rite]]s into adulthood. The number, design, and location of tattoos, therefore, were indicative of a warrior's status and prowess. They were also regarded as magical wards against various dangers like evil spirits and illnesses.<ref>{{cite book |last1=DeMello |first1=Margo |title=Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-076-8}}</ref> Among the [[Visayans]] of the [[pre-colonial Philippines]], tattoos were worn by the ''[[maginoo|tumao]]'' nobility and the ''[[timawa]]'' warrior class as permanent records of their participation and conduct in maritime raids known as ''[[mangayaw]]''.<ref name="scott2">{{cite book |author=William Henry Scott |title=Barangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |year=1994}}</ref><ref name="arcilla">{{cite book |author=José S. Arcilla |title=An Introduction to Philippine History |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |year=1998 |pages=14–16 |isbn=9789715502610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C&q=timawa&pg=PA14}}</ref> In Austronesian women, like the facial tattoos among the women of the [[Tayal people|Tayal]] and [[Māori people]], they were indicators of status, skill, and beauty.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-RobMoko-t1-body-d1-d2.html |title=Moko; or Maori Tattooing |chapter=Moko and Mokamokai – Chapter I – How Moko First Became Knows to Europeans |page=5 |author=Major-General Robley |year=1896 |publisher=Chapman and Hall Limited |access-date=26 September 2009}}</ref><ref name="lach">{{cite book |author1=Lach, Donald F. |author2=Van Kley, Edwin J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 3: Southeast Asia |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1998 |page=1499 |isbn=978-0-226-46768-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M4t8S7BfgeIC&pg=PA1499}}</ref>

Tattoos were part of the ancient [[Wu culture]] of the [[Yangtze River Delta]] but had negative connotations in traditional [[Han culture]] in [[China]]. The [[Predynastic Zhou|Zhou]] refugees [[Wu Taibo]] and his brother [[Zhongyong of Wu|Zhongyong]] were recorded cutting their hair and tattooing themselves to gain acceptance before founding the [[ancient Chinese state|state]] of [[Wu (state)|Wu]], but Zhou and [[imperial China|imperial Chinese]] culture tended to restrict tattooing as a punishment for marking criminals.<ref name=dem7-61>{{cite book |last=DeMello |first=Margo |title=Encyclopedia of body adornment |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport |isbn=978-0-313-33695-9 |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dutton |first=Michael |title=Streetlife China |year=1998 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-63141-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/streetlifechina0000unse/page/163 163 & 180] |url=https://archive.org/details/streetlifechina0000unse/page/163}}</ref> The association of tattoos with [[criminal]]s was transmitted from China to influence Japan.<ref name=dem7-61 /> Today, tattoos remain generally disfavored in Chinese society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dutton |first=Michael |title=Streetlife China |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-63141-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/streetlifechina0000unse/page/180 180] |url=https://archive.org/details/streetlifechina0000unse/page/180}}</ref>

Tattooing of criminals and slaves was commonplace in the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tattoos and the Romans... |url=https://ancientworlds.net/aworlds_direct/app_main.php?pageData=Post/55599 |access-date=2024-04-16 |website=ancientworlds.net}}</ref> Catholic [[Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Croats]] of [[Bosnia]], especially children and women, used [[Sicanje]] for protection against conversion to [[Islam]] during the Ottoman rule in the Balkans.<ref>Truhelka, Ciro. ''Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen Aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina'': "Die Tätowirung bei den Katholiken Bosniens und der Hercegovina." Sarajevo; Bosnian National Museum, 1896.</ref>

In the 19th century, released convicts from the U.S. and Australia, as well as British military deserters were identified by tattoos.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Military Deserter Marking Instrument, 1842 |url=https://www.bada.org/object/military-deserter-marking-instrument-1842 |access-date=2024-04-16 |website=BADA |language=en}}</ref> Prisoners in [[Nazi concentration camps]] were tattooed with an identification number. Today, many prison inmates still tattoo themselves as an indication of time spent in prison.<ref name="Abington 2010" />

[[File:Tsukioka Yoshitoshi - Looking in Pain - a Prostitute of the Kansei Era.jpg|thumb|left|upright|An 1888 [[Woodblock printing in Japan|Japanese woodblock print]] (''[[ukiyo-e]]'') of a prostitute biting her handkerchief in pain as her arm is tattooed. Based on historical practice, the tattoo is likely the name of her lover. printed by [[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]].]]
The [[Government of Meiji Japan]] had outlawed tattoos in the 19th century, a prohibition that stood for 70 years before being repealed in 1948.<ref>Ito, Masami, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100608i1.html Whether covered or brazen, tattoos make a statement]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 8 June 2010, p. 3</ref> As of 6 June 2012, all new tattoos are forbidden for employees of the city of [[Osaka]]. Existing tattoos are required to be covered with proper clothing. The regulations were added to Osaka's ethical codes, and employees with tattoos were encouraged to have them removed. This was done because of the strong connection of tattoos with the [[yakuza]], or Japanese organized crime, after an Osaka official in February 2012 threatened a schoolchild by showing his tattoo.

=== Modern associations ===
[[File:Tattoo Collection of the Laboratoire de sciences judiciaires of Montreal, 1925.jpg|thumb|[[Wilfrid Derome]] Tattoo Collection, 1925]]
Tattoos are strongly associated with [[Deviance (sociology)|deviance]], [[personality disorders]] and criminality.<ref name="Wesley">{{cite journal |title=Inked into Crime? An Examination of the Causal Relationship between Tattoos and Life-Course Offending among Males from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development |author1=Wesley G. Jennings |author2=Bryanna Hahn Fox |author3=David P. Farrington |date=14 January 2014 |journal=Journal of Criminal Justice |volume=42 |issue=1, January–February 2014 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2013.12.006}}</ref><ref name="Adams">{{cite journal |last=Adams |first=Joshua |year=2012 |title=The Relationship between Tattooing and Deviance in Contemporary Society |journal=Deviance Today |pages=137–145}}</ref> Although the general acceptance of tattoos is on the rise in Western society, they still carry a heavy stigma among certain social groups.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/kevin-bailey/society-and-tattoos_b_15788552.html |title=Society And Tattoos |date=4 April 2017 |website=HuffPost UK |language=en |access-date=26 May 2019}}</ref> Tattoos are generally considered an important part of the culture of the [[Russian criminal tattoos|Russian mafia]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/oct/26/russian-criminal-tattoos |title=Russian criminal tattoos: breaking the code |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=26 October 2010 |website=The Guardian |language=en |access-date=21 September 2018}}</ref>

Current cultural understandings of tattoos in Europe and North America have been greatly influenced by long-standing stereotypes based on deviant social groups in the 19th and 20th centuries. Particularly in North America, tattoos have been associated with stereotypes, [[folklore]] and racism.<ref name=google1 /> Not until the 1960s and 1970s did people associate tattoos with such societal outcasts as [[Outlaw motorcycle club|bikers]] and prisoners.<ref>''Bodies of Inscription: A Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community''. Margo DeMello. Durham, NC: [[Duke University Press]], 2000. vii + 222 pp., photographs, notes, bibliography, index.</ref> Today, in the United States many prisoners and criminal gangs use distinctive tattoos to indicate facts about their criminal behavior, [[prison tattooing|prison sentences]] and organizational affiliation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lichtenstein |first=Andrew |url=https://www.foto8.com/issue01/dprisontattoos/prisontattoos1.html |website=Foto8 |title=Texas Prison Tattoos |access-date=8 December 2007}}</ref> A [[teardrop tattoo]], for example, can be symbolic of murder, or each tear represents the death of a friend. At the same time, members of the [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]] have an equally well-established and longstanding [[history of tattooing]] to indicate military units, battles, kills, etc., an association that remains widespread among older Americans. In Japan, tattoos are associated with [[yakuza]] criminal groups, but there are non-yakuza groups such as [[Fukushi Masaichi]]'s tattoo association that sought to preserve the skins of dead Japanese who have extensive tattoos. Tattooing is also common in the [[British Armed Forces]]. Depending on vocation, tattoos are accepted in a number of professions in America. Companies across many fields are increasingly focused on diversity and inclusion.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hennessey |first=Rachel |url=http://smallbusiness.yahoo.com/advisor/tattoos-no-longer-kiss-death-workplace-163214544.html |title=Tattoos No Longer A Kiss Of Death In The Workplace |publisher=Yahoo! Small Business Advisor |agency=Forbes |date=8 March 2013 |access-date=15 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504133148/http://smallbusiness.yahoo.com/advisor/tattoos-no-longer-kiss-death-workplace-163214544.html |archive-date= May 4, 2013 }}</ref> Mainstream art galleries hold exhibitions of both conventional and custom tattoo designs, such as ''Beyond Skin'', at the [[Museum of Croydon]].<ref name="croydon">{{cite web |title=Beyond Skin |url=http://www.museumofcroydon.com/beyondskin |website=Museum of Croydon |access-date=17 August 2018 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817125017/http://www.museumofcroydon.com/beyondskin |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Latin King .jpg|thumb|left|[[Latin Kings (gang)|Latin Kings]] gang member showing his gang tattoo]]
In Britain, there is evidence of women with tattoos, concealed by their clothing, throughout the 20th century, and records of women tattooists such as [[Jessie Knight (tattoo artist)|Jessie Knight]] from the 1920s.<ref name="Mifflin2013">{{cite book |last1=Mifflin |first1=Margot |title=Bodies of Subversion: A secret history of women and tattoo |date=2013 |publisher=Powerhouse Books |isbn=978-1-57687-613-8 |pages=192 |edition=3rd}}</ref> A study of "at-risk" (as defined by school absenteeism and truancy) adolescent girls showed a positive correlation between body modification and negative feelings towards the body and low self-esteem; however, the study also demonstrated that a strong motive for body modification is the search for "self and attempts to attain mastery and control over the body in an age of increasing alienation".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carroll |first1=L. |last2=Anderson |first2=R. |title=Body piercing, tattooing, self-esteem, and body investment in adolescent girls |journal=Adolescence |volume=37 |issue=147 |pages=627–37 |year=2002 |pmid=12458698}}</ref> The prevalence of women in the tattoo industry in the 21st century, along with larger numbers of women bearing tattoos, appears to be changing negative perceptions.

In ''Covered in Ink'' by Beverly Yuen Thompson, she interviews heavily tattooed women in Washington, Miami, Orlando, Houston, Long Beach, and Seattle from 2007 to 2010 using [[participant observation]] and in-depth interviews of 70 women. Younger generations are typically more unbothered by heavily tattooed women, while older generation including the participants parents are more likely to look down on them, some even go to the extreme of disowning their children for getting tattoos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Beverly Yuen |title=Covered in Ink |date=24 July 2015 |publisher=New York University Press |doi=10.18574/nyu/9780814760000.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-8147-6000-0}}</ref> Typically how the family reacts is an indicator of their relationship in general. Reports were given that family members who were not accepting of tattoos wanted to scrub the images off, pour holy water on them or have them surgically removed. Families who were emotionally accepting of their family members were able to maintain close bonds after tattooing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Beverly Yuen |title=Covered in Ink: Tattoos, Women and the Politics of the Body |date=2015 |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |pages=87–88}}</ref>

=== Tattooing and mental health ===

{{More citations needed section|date=May 2025}}
Tattoos are increasingly recognized as a tool for emotional healing, offering a way for individuals to process trauma, reclaim control over their bodies, and mark personal recovery. Many individuals use tattoos to symbolize resilience or to commemorate significant life events such as overcoming abuse, illness, or mental health challenges. For those who have experienced trauma, the act of choosing and receiving a meaningful tattoo can provide a sense of empowerment and emotional relief.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Healing Trauma with the Help of Tattoo Art {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/talking-about-trauma/201911/healing-trauma-with-the-help-of-tattoo-art |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

In some communities, mental health clinics and support groups offer free or low-cost [[Cover-up tattoo|cover-up tattoos]] to cover self-harm scars, particularly for those in recovery. Clients of these programs often report that these tattoos are transformative, turning marks of pain into symbols of strength and survival.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Muller |first=Robert T. |date=2019-03-22 |title=Healing Trauma with the Help of Tattoo Art |url=https://trauma.blog.yorku.ca/2019/03/healing-trauma-with-the-help-of-tattoo-art/ |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=The Trauma & Mental Health Report |language=en-US}}</ref>

Tattoos can play a role in shaping self-esteem and body image. Research has found that individuals who get tattoos often report improvements in body acceptance and a greater sense of self-worth. One study showed that men and women experienced decreased anxiety and enhanced body image shortly after receiving tattoos, with these effects lasting for weeks.<ref name=":9">Curtis, Russ et al. (2024). [https://tpcjournal.nbcc.org/ink-ling-of-identity-unraveling-tattoo-culture-for-mental-health-counselors/ “Ink-ling of Identity: Unraveling Tattoo Culture for Mental Health Counselors.”] ''The Professional Counselor.'' 14(3):241–254.</ref> In particular, tattoos are seen as a way to assert identity and autonomy over one's body, especially among individuals who have faced trauma or medical challenges. Tattoos are also a common form of gender affirmation and medical recovery. For example, some breast cancer survivors choose decorative tattoos in place of reconstruction, with many reporting positive impacts on body image and a sense of personal agency.<ref>Reid-de Jong, Victoria (2022). “Unveiling Beauty: Insight into Being Tattooed Postmastectomy.” *Nursing Forum* 57(4):536–544.</ref>

Memorial tattoos are a meaningful way for individuals to commemorate loved ones who have passed or to mark significant life events.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buckle |first=Jennifer L. |last2=Corbin Dwyer |first2=Sonya |date=2021-10-10 |title=Embodied meaning making: Memorial tattoos as a visual expression of grief |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34632966 |journal=Death Studies |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/07481187.2021.1983889 |issn=1091-7683 |pmid=34632966}}</ref> These tattoos often serve as a lasting reminder of those lost, offering a way for people to process grief and keep the memory of the deceased alive.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Corbin Dwyer |first=Sonya |last2=Buckle |first2=Jennifer L |date=30 March 2022 |title=‘A tattoo is for life’: how memorial tattoos help the bereaved {{!}} Psyche Ideas |url=https://psyche.co/ideas/a-tattoo-is-for-life-how-memorial-tattoos-help-the-bereaved |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=Psyche |language=en}}</ref>

While tattoos are associated with emotional healing for many, experts caution against viewing tattooing as a substitute for clinical treatment. Some critics argue that media depictions of trauma-related tattoos may romanticize the process, suggesting that tattooing alone can lead to emotional recovery. Additionally, the permanence of tattoos means that designs chosen during vulnerable moments may later lead to regret if their meanings change.<ref>Phillips, Suzanne B. (July 18, 2021). “Tattoos After Trauma: 6 Qualities of Healing Potential.” *Psychology Today*. Retrieved 2025.</ref> Mental health professionals are advised to explore the personal significance of tattoos with clients rather than making assumptions about their impact. Although tattoos are not intrinsically linked to mental illness, their meaning can vary widely depending on individual context and cultural factors.<ref name=":9" />