Editing Sailing ship (section)

== Ship handling ==
[[File:Imperator Alexander (ship, 1885) - SLV H99.220-2856.jpg|thumb|Sailing ship at sea, rolling and heeled over from the force of the wind on its sails.]]
Handling a sailing ship requires management of its sails to power—but not overpower—the ship and navigation to guide the ship, both at sea and in and out of harbors.

===Under sail===
Key elements of sailing a ship are setting the right amount of sail to generate maximum power without endangering the ship, adjusting the sails to the wind direction on the course sailed, and changing tack to bring the wind from one side of the vessel to the other.

==== Setting sail ====
A sailing ship crew manages the running rigging of each square sail. Each sail has two sheets that control its lower corners, two braces that control the angle of the yard, two clewlines, four buntlines and two reef tackles. All these lines must be manned as the sail is deployed and the yard raised. They use a halyard to raise each yard and its sail; then they pull or ease the braces to set the angle of the yard across the vessel; they pull on sheets to haul lower corners of the sail, ''clews'', out to yard below. Under way, the crew manages ''reef tackles'', ''haul leeches'', ''reef points'', to manage the size and angle of the sail; ''bowlines'' pull the leading edge of the sail (''leech'') taut when close hauled. When furling the sail, the crew uses ''clewlines'', haul up the clews and ''buntlines'' to haul up the middle of sail up; when lowered, ''lifts'' support each yard.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oceannavigator.com/May-June-2014/Square-sail-handling/|title=Square sail handling – Ocean Navigator – May/June 2014|last=Queeney|first=Tim|date=April 25, 2014|website=www.oceannavigator.com|access-date=2019-06-23|archive-date=2019-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623131732/http://www.oceannavigator.com/May-June-2014/Square-sail-handling/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In strong winds, the crew is directed to reduce the number of sails or, alternatively, the amount of each given sail that is presented to the wind by a process called ''reefing''. To pull the sail up, seamen on the yardarm pull on ''reef tackles'', attached to ''reef cringles'', to pull the sail up and secure it with lines, called ''reef points''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3nh0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178|title=The Language of Sailing|last=Mayne|first=Richard|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135965655|location=New York|pages=reef|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233636/https://books.google.com/books?id=3nh0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Dana spoke of the hardships of sail handling during high wind and rain or with ice covering the ship and its rigging.<ref name=":3" />

==== Changing tack ====
[[File:Course made good by tacking--square-rigged ship versus schooner.jpg|thumb|Diagram contrasting course made good to windward by tacking a schooner versus a square-rigged ship.]]
Sailing vessels cannot sail directly into the wind. Instead, [[Square rig|square-riggers]] must sail a course that is between 60° and 70° away from the wind direction<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oceannavigator.com/January-February-2003/Tall-ship-sail-handling/|title=Tall ship sail handling – Ocean Navigator – January/February 2003|date=January 1, 2003|website=www.oceannavigator.com|access-date=2019-06-23|archive-date=2019-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623131729/http://www.oceannavigator.com/January-February-2003/Tall-ship-sail-handling/|url-status=live}}</ref> and fore-and aft vessels can typically sail no closer than 45°.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mtqgsWaWciMC&pg=PA11|title=Royce's Sailing Illustrated|last=Royce|first=Patrick M.|date=1997|publisher=ProStar Publications|isbn=9780911284072|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233636/https://books.google.com/books?id=mtqgsWaWciMC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> To reach a destination, sailing vessels may have to change course and allow the wind to come from the opposite side in a procedure, called ''[[Tacking (sailing)|tacking]]'', when the wind comes across the bow during the maneuver.

When tacking, a square-rigged vessel's sails must be presented squarely to the wind and thus impede forward motion as they are swung around via the [[yardarms]] through the wind as controlled by the vessel's [[Running rigging#Adjusting angle to the wind|running rigging]], using [[Brace (sailing)|braces]]—adjusting the fore and aft angle of each [[yard (sailing)|yardarm]] around the mast—and [[Sheet (sailing)|sheet]]s attached to the [[Parts of a sail#Corners|clew]]s (bottom corners) of each sail to control the sail's angle to the wind.<ref name = Biddlecombe >
{{cite book
 | last = Biddlecombe
 | first = George
 | title = The Art of Rigging: Containing an Explanation of Terms and Phrases and the Progressive Method of Rigging Expressly Adapted for Sailing Ships
 | publisher = Courier Corporation
 | series = Dover Maritime Series
 | date = 1990
 | page = [https://archive.org/details/artrigging00steegoog/page/n33 13]
 | url = https://archive.org/details/artrigging00steegoog
 | isbn = 9780486263434 }}</ref> The procedure is to turn the vessel into the wind with the hind-most fore-and-aft sail (the [[Spanker (sail)|spanker]]), pulled to windward to help turn the ship through the eye of the wind. Once the ship has come about, all the sails are adjusted to align properly with the new tack. Because square-rigger [[Mast (sailing)|masts]] are more strongly braced from behind than from ahead, tacking is a dangerous procedure in strong winds; the ship may lose forward momentum (become ''caught in stays'') and the rigging may fail from the wind coming from ahead. The ship may also lose momentum at wind speeds of less than {{Convert|10|kn|km/h|abbr=}}.<ref name=":2" /> Under these conditions, the choice may be to ''wear ship''—to turn the ship away from the wind and around 240° onto the next tack (60° off the wind).<ref name = Findlay>{{cite book
 | last = Findlay
 | first = Gordon D.
 | title = My Hand on the Tiller
 | publisher = AuthorHouse
 | date = 2005
 | page = 138
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OzFWjOMvGs4C&pg=PA138
 | isbn = 9781456793500
 | access-date = 2019-06-24
 | archive-date = 2023-10-27
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233636/https://books.google.com/books?id=OzFWjOMvGs4C&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYxaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT72|title=HMS Victory Pocket Manual 1805: Admiral Nelson's Flagship At Trafalgar|last=Goodwin|first=Peter|date=2018-01-25|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=9781472834072|language=en|access-date=2019-07-03|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233637/https://books.google.com/books?id=SYxaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT72|url-status=live}}</ref>

A fore-and-aft rig permits the wind to flow past the sail, as the craft head through the eye of the wind. Most rigs pivot around a stay or the mast, while this occurs. For a [[jib]], the old [[leeward]] sheet is released as the craft heads through the wind and the old [[Windward and leeward|windward]] sheet is tightened as the new leeward sheet to allow the sail to draw wind. [[Mainsail]]s are often self-tending and slide on a [[Traveller (nautical fitting)|traveler]] to the opposite side.<ref name = Jobson2>{{cite book
 | last = Jobson
 | first = Gary
 | title = Sailing Fundamentals
 | publisher = Simon and Schuster
 | edition = Revised
 | date = 2008
 | pages = 224
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mKTrrP3wA-cC
 | isbn = 978-1-4391-3678-2
 | access-date = 2019-06-24
 | archive-date = 2023-10-27
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233636/https://books.google.com/books?id=mKTrrP3wA-cC
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref> On certain rigs, such as [[lateen]]s<ref name=Lateen>{{Citation
 |last         = Campbell
 |first        = I.C.
 |year         = 1995
 |title        = The Lateen Sail in World History
 |periodical   = Journal of World History
 |volume       = 6
 |issue        = 1
 |pages        = 1–23
 |url          = http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/journals/jwh/jwh061p001.pdf
 |access-date  = 2017-06-16
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160804061252/http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/journals/jwh/jwh061p001.pdf
 |archive-date = 2016-08-04
 |url-status     = dead
}}</ref> and [[lugger]]s,<ref name = Lugger>{{cite book
 | last = Skeat
 | first = Walter W.
 | title = An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language
 | publisher = Courier Corporation
 | series = Dover language guides
 | edition = Reprint
 | date = 2013
 | page = 351
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jeeGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA351
 | isbn = 978-0-486-31765-6
 | access-date = 2019-06-24
 | archive-date = 2023-10-27
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233637/https://books.google.com/books?id=jeeGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA351#v=onepage&q&f=false
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref> the sail may be partially lowered to bring it to the opposite side.

=== Navigation ===
[[File:Marine sextant.svg|thumb|The marine [[sextant]] is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon.]]

Early navigational techniques employed observations of the sun, stars, waves and birdlife. In the 15th century, the Chinese were using the magnetic compass to identify direction of travel. By the 16th century in Europe, navigational instruments included the [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]], the [[astrolabe]], [[Jacob's staff|cross staff]], [[Calipers|dividers]] and compass. By the time of the Age of Exploration these tools were being used in combination with a [[Chip log|log]] to measure speed, a lead line to measure [[Depth sounding|soundings]], and a lookout to identify potential hazards. Later, an accurate [[Sextant|marine sextant]] became standard for determining [[latitude]] and was used with an accurate [[Chronometer watch|chronometer]] to calculate [[longitude]].<ref name = gettingthere>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyGkCQAAQBAJ|title=Time and Navigation: The Untold Story of Getting from Here to There|last1=Johnston|first1=Andrew K.|last2=Connor|first2=Roger D.|last3=Stephens|first3=Carlene E.|last4=Ceruzzi|first4=Paul E.|date=2015-06-02|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|isbn=9781588344922|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027233637/https://books.google.com/books?id=xyGkCQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Sextant | volume= 24 | pages = 765&ndash;767 }}</ref>

[[Passage planning]] begins with laying out a route along a chart, which comprises a series of courses between fixes—verifiable locations that confirm the actual track of the ship on the ocean. Once a course has been set, the person at the helm attempts to follow its direction with reference to the compass. The navigator notes the time and speed at each fix to estimate the arrival at the next fix, a process called [[dead reckoning]]. For coast-wise navigation, sightings from known landmarks or [[navigational aid]]s may be used to establish fixes, a process called [[Piloting|pilotage]].<ref name="Couch" />{{Obsolete source|reason=The definition of dead reckoning has changed since this book was written over 125 years ago|date=June 2022}} At sea, sailing ships used [[celestial navigation]] on a daily schedule, as follows:<ref>{{Cite book |title=Merchant Marine officers' handbook |date=1965 |publisher=Cornell Maritime Press |last1=Turpin |first1=Edward A. |last2=MacEwen |first2=William A. |last3=Hayler |first3=William B. |isbn=087033056X |location=Cambridge, Md. |oclc=228950964}}</ref>
# Continuous dead reckoning plot
# Star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix
# Morning Sun observation to determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun
# Noontime observation of the Sun for noon latitude line for determination the day's run and day's set and drift
# Afternoon sun line to determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun
# Star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix
Fixes were taken with a marine [[sextant]], which measures the distance of the celestial body above the horizon.<ref name = gettingthere/>

=== Entering and leaving harbor ===
Given the limited maneuverability of sailing ships, it could be difficult to enter and leave [[harbor]] with the presence of a [[tide]] without coordinating arrivals with a flooding tide and departures with an ebbing tide. In harbor, a sailing ship stood at anchor, unless it needed to be loaded or unloaded at a [[dock]] or [[pier]], in which case it might be warped alongside or towed by a tug. Warping involved using a long rope (the warp) between the ship and a fixed point on the shore. This was pulled on by a capstan on shore, or on the ship. This might be a multi-stage process if the route was not simple. If no fixed point was available, a kedge anchor might be taken out in a ship's boat to a suitable point and the ship then pulled up to the kedge. Square rigged vessels could use [[Glossary of nautical terms (A-L)#back and fill|backing and filling]] (of the sails) to manoeuvre in a tideway, or control could be maintained by [[drudging]] the anchor - lower the anchor until it touches the bottom so that the dragging anchor gives steerage way in the flow of the tide.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/oceanlifeinolds01whidgoog|title=Ocean Life in the Old Sailing Ship Days: From Forecastle to Quarter-deck|last=Whidden|first=John D.|date=1912|publisher=Little, Brown, & Co|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Harland 1984">{{cite book |last=Harland |first=John |year=1984 |title=Seamanship in the Age of Sail: an account of the shiphandling of the sailing man-of-war 1600-1860, based on contemporary sources |publisher=Conway Maritime Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-8448-6309-9}}</ref>{{rp|199–202}}