Editing Rusyn language (section)

=== Noun declension ===
{{Missing information|section|Lemko and Subcarpathian declension|date=January 2022}}
[[Declension]] in Rusyn is based on grammatical [[Grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical gender|gender]], and [[Grammatical case|case]]. [[English plurals|Like English]], only two types of grammatical number are expressed: singular and [[plural]]. And like other Slavic languages, Rusyn has three grammatical genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Furthermore, like those languages, Rusyn uses a seven-case system of [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[locative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], and [[vocative]] cases.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-44}}

One final point of note is that the masculine gender (and only the masculine gender) is further subdivided into [[animacy|animate and inanimate]] types. While there are no [[suffix]]es ''specific'' to animacy, declension between the two differs in that for ''animates'', the form of the accusative case copies that of the genitive case.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-44}}

==== Grammatical cases ====

As mentioned in the preceding section, Rusyn cases are similar to those of other Slavic languages. A ''very general'' summary of usage is given in the table below, though proper usage depends on a particular situation, prepositions, and verbs used, as well as other extenuating circumstances.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-44}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+Cases in Rusyn
|-
!scope="col"| Full name (Rusyn)
!scope="col"| Case
!scope="col"| ''General'' Usage
|-
| номінатів
!scope="row"|[[nominative case|nominative]]
| Subjects
|-
| акузатів
!scope="row"|[[accusative case|accusative]]
| Direct objects
|-
| ґенітів
!scope="row"|[[genitive case|genitive]]
| Possession or belonging (i.e. "of" or [[English possessive | English possessive suffix ''-'s'']])
|-
| датів
!scope="row"|[[dative case|dative]]
| Indirect objects (i.e. "to" or "for")
|-
| локал
!scope="row"|[[locative case|locative]]
| Concerning location. Only used with prepositions such as "in", "on", etc.
|-
| інштрументал
!scope="row"|[[instrumental case|instrumental]]
| Concerning "means by which".
|-
| вокатів
!scope="row"|[[vocative case|vocative]]
| Used to address another.
|}

Nouns will generally decline differently to indicate each case (e.g. English ''they/them/their/theirs''). Based on ''how'' they decline, nouns can be grouped into one of four "types".
* '''Type I''': feminine nouns ending in '''-а'''/'''-я''' in the nominative singular
* '''Type II''':
** masculine nouns ending in a consonant in the nominative singular
** neuter and masculine nouns ending in a consonant or '''-o''' in the nominative singular
** neuters ending in '''-e''' or '''-а'''/'''-я''' in the nominative singular
* '''Type III''':
** feminine nouns ending in a ''paired consonant'' ('''-cons.+ь'''),{{efn-lr|name=pairing}} an ''unpaired [[palato-alveolar consonant]]'' ('''-ш''', '''-ч''', '''щ''', '''-ж''', or '''-дж'''),{{efn-lr|name=hushers|Pugh refers to these collectively as "hushers".}} or '''-ов''' in the nominative singular
** the feminine noun {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|мати|maty|mother}} 
* '''Type IV''': neuter nouns ending in '''-а'''/'''-я''' in the nominative singular

==== Declension type I: feminines ending in -а/-я ====
This type consists of grammatically feminine nouns ending in '''-а''' (hard) or '''-я''' ([[Palatalization (phonetics)#Slavic languages|soft]]) in the nominative case. The table below includes four examples of such nouns. The first two represent the ''archetypal'' feminine paradigm, while the second two represent a "common" or "two-fold gender" paradigm.

It is important to note that this second paradigm has atypical dative, locative, and instrumental singular suffixes which are actually representative of the male/neuter declension paradigm (visible later in this article). According to Pugh, this peculiarity developed as a result of the societal roles of "judge" and "elder" being traditionally patriarchal. This phenomenon is in contrast to grammatically feminine nouns of ambiguous gender where a particular role was not historically male-oriented, such as {{langx|rue|label=none|сирота|orphan}}. In these cases, the typical feminine paradigm is ''maintained''.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-49}}
{|class=wikitable
|+Feminine Nouns Ending in -а/-я in the Nominative Singular{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=43-49}}
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Archetypal Feminine
!colspan="2"|Common/Two-Fold Gender
|-
! Hard !!Soft !! Hard !! Soft
|-
!rowspan="7"|Sg.
!Nominative
|школ'''а''' || земл'''я'''|| старост'''а''' || судц'''я'''
|-
!Accusative
|школ'''у'''
| земл'''ю''' || старост'''у''' || судц'''ю'''
|-
!Genitive
| школ'''ы''' || земл'''ї''' || старост'''ы''' || судц'''ї'''
|-
!Dative
| школ'''ї''' || земл'''ї''' || старост'''ови''' || судц'''ёви'''
|-
!Locative
|школ'''ї''' || земл'''и''' || старост'''ови''' || судц'''ёви'''
|-
!Instrumental
|школ'''ов'''{{efn|name=dec1n1<!--declension 1, note 1-->|'''-ов''' is pronounced as in English ''owe''.}} ||земл'''ёв'''{{efn|name=dec1n1}} ||старост'''ов''' <br /> старост'''ом''' || судц'''ём'''
|-
!Vocative
|школ'''о''' ||земл'''ё''' || старост'''о''' || судц'''ё'''
|- <!--------- PLURAL ------------>
!rowspan="6"|Pl.
!Nominative
|школ'''ы''' ||земл'''ї''' ||старост'''ове''' <br/> старост'''ы''' ||судц'''ёве''' <br/> судц'''ї'''
|-
!Accusative
|школ'''ы'''||земл'''ї'''||старост'''ів'''||судц'''їв'''
|-
!Genitive
|школ || земль || старост <br/> старост'''ів'''|| судц'''їв'''
|-
!Dative
|школ'''ам''' || земл'''ям''' || старост'''ам''' <br/> старост'''ім''' || судц'''ям''' <br/> судц'''їм'''
|-
!Locative
|школ'''ам''' || земл'''ях''' || старост'''ах''' <br/> старост'''ох''' || судц'''ях'''
|-
!Instrumental
|школ'''ами''' || земл'''ями''' || старост'''ами''' || судц'''ями'''
|-
!colspan="2"|English
|school || earth || elder || judge
|}

{{notelist}}

==== Declension type II: masculines and neuters ====
This declension type encompasses a very large set of vocabulary as it contains nouns of both masculine and neuter genders, hard and soft stems, as well as animate and inanimate beings (for the masculine gender).{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=49-50}}

===== Masculines ending in consonants =====
This declension contains a large amount of identical forms ([[Syncretism (linguistics)|syncretism]]) between cases. Depending on the noun, the number of distinct forms may number from as few as 3 to as many as 6. For singular animate nouns, there is a single form for the accusative and genitive cases, as well as a single form for the dative and locative cases. Similarly, singular inanimate nouns share a form for nominative and locative cases.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=50}}
{|class=wikitable
|+Masculine Nouns Ending in a Consonant in the Nominative Singular{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=50}}
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Animate
!colspan="2"|Inanimate
|-
!|Hard
!|Soft
!|Hard
!|Soft
|-
!rowspan="7"|Sg.
!Nominative
|сын
|учітель
|rowspan="2"|стіл
|rowspan="2"|край
|-
!Accusative
|rowspan="2"|сын'''а'''
|rowspan="2"|учітел'''я'''
|-
!Genitive{{efn | group=a | For this declension, nouns may decline with either '''-u''' or '''-a'''. Use of one or the other depends on whether the concept or object is (''very generally'') abstract or tangible in nature. For instance, Pugh provides the following examples for the former: "anger, pain, reason, sugar, tea"; and the following for the latter: "table, nose, knife, et al."}}{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=50}}
|стол'''а'''
|кра'''ю'''
|-
!Dative
|rowspan="2"|сын'''ови'''
|rowspan="2"|учітел'''ёви'''
|стол'''у'''
|кра'''ю'''
|-
!Locative
|стол'''ї'''
|кра'''ю'''
|-
!Instrumental
|сын'''ом'''
|учітел'''ём'''
|стіл'''ом'''
|кра'''ём'''
|-
!Vocative
|сын'''у'''
|учітел'''ю'''
|стол'''е'''
|кра'''ю'''
|- <!--------- PLURAL ------------>
!rowspan="6"|Pl.
!Nominative
|сын'''ове'''
|учітел'''ї'''
|стол'''ы'''
|кра'''ї'''
|-
!Accusative
|сын'''ів'''
|учітел'''їв'''
|стол'''ы'''
|кра'''ї'''
|-
!Genitive
|сын'''ів'''
|учітел'''їв'''
|стол'''ів'''
|кра'''їв'''
|-
!Dative
|сын'''ам''' <br/> сын'''ім'''
|учітел'''ям''' <br/> учітел'''їм'''
|стол'''ам''' <br/> стол'''ім'''
|кра'''ям''' <br/> кра'''їм'''
|-
!Locative
|сын'''ох''' <br/> сын'''ах'''
|учітел'''ях''' <br/> учітел'''ёх'''
|стол'''ох''' <br/> стол'''ах'''
|кра'''ях''' <br/> кра'''ёх'''
|-
!Instrumental
|сын'''ами'''
|учітел'''ями'''
|стол'''ами'''
|кра'''ями'''
|-
!colspan="2"|English
|son
|teacher
|table
|area, region
|}

{{notelist|group=a}}

===== Neuters or masculines ending in -o, neuters ending in -e or -а/-я =====
The following table demonstrates the declension paradigm for nouns with hard stems which end in '''-o''' in the nominative case. Though there are some masculine nouns in this category, these nouns are predominantly neuter.
{|class=wikitable
|+Neuter or Masculine Nouns (with Hard Stems) Ending in -o in the Nominative Singular{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=53-54}}
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" |Masculine
! rowspan="2" |Neuter
|-
!|Inanimate
!|Animate
|-
!rowspan="7"|Sg.
!Nominative
|домиск'''о'''
|дїд'''о'''
|сел'''о'''
|-
!Accusative
|домиск'''о'''
|дїд'''а'''{{efn|This follows the typical masculine animate paradigm where the genitive takes the place of the accusative.}}
|сел'''о'''
|-
!Genitive 
|домиск'''а'''
|дїд'''а'''
|сел'''а'''
|-
!Dative
|домиск'''у'''
|дїд'''ови'''
|сел'''у'''
|-
!Locative{{efn|For the locative case, there are three possible suffixes: '''-ovy''' for animates, '''-i''' for inanimates (either masculine or neuter), and '''-u''' for stems ending in velar or soft consonants.}}
|домиск'''у'''
|дїд'''ови'''
|сел'''ї'''
|-
!Instrumental
|домиск'''ом'''
|дїд'''ом'''
|сел'''ом'''
|-
!Vocative
|домиск'''о'''
|дїд'''у'''
|сел'''о'''
|- <!--------- PLURAL ------------>
!rowspan="6"|Pl.
!Nominative
|домиск'''а'''
|дїд'''ове'''
|сел'''а'''
|-
!Accusative
|домиск'''а'''
|дїд'''ів'''
|сел'''а'''
|-
!Genitive
|домиск
|дїд'''ів'''
|сел
|-
!Dative
|домиск'''ам'''
|дїд'''ам'''
|сел'''ам'''
|-
!Locative
|домиск'''ах'''/
домиск'''ох'''
|дїд'''ах'''/
дїд'''ох'''
|сел'''ах'''
|-
!Instrumental
|домиск'''ами'''
|дїд'''ами'''
|сел'''ами'''
|-
!colspan="2"|English
|large house, building
|grandfather
|village
|}
{{notelist}}

{|class=wikitable
|+Neuter Nouns (with Soft Stems) Ending in -e and -а/-я in the Nominative Singular{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=54-55}}
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="1"|
! colspan="2" |Soft in Nominative
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Hard in Nominative{{efn|Over time, soft consonants before '''-e''' have hardened in Rusyn.}}
|-
!rowspan="6"|Sg.
! Nominative
| услові'''є''' || значін'''я'''{{efn|This suffix changed over time from '''-e''' to '''-a'''.}} || пол'''е''' || сердц'''е'''
|-
! Accusative
| услові'''є''' || значін'''я''' || пол'''е''' || сердц'''е'''
|-
! Genitive
| услові'''я''' || значін'''я''' || пол'''я''' || сердц'''я'''
|-
! Dative
| услові'''ю''' || значін'''ю''' || пол'''ю''' || сердц'''ю'''
|-
! Locative
| услові'''ю'''<br> услові'''ї''' || значін'''ю'''<br> значін'''ї''' || пол'''ю'''<br> пол'''ї''' || сердц'''ю'''<br> сердц'''ї'''
|-
! Instrumental
| услові'''ём''' || значін'''ём''' || пол'''ём''' || сердц'''ём'''
|- <!--------- PLURAL ------------>
! rowspan="6"|Pl.
! Nominative
| услові'''я''' || значін'''я''' || пол'''я''' || сердц'''я'''
|-
! Accusative
| услові'''я''' || значін'''я''' || пол'''я''' || сердц'''я'''
|-
! Genitive
| условій || значінь || поль || сердець<br> сердць
|-
! Dative
| услові'''ям''' || значін'''ям''' || пол'''ям''' || сердц'''ям'''
|-
! Locative
| услові'''ях''' || значін'''ях''' || пол'''ях''' || сердц'''ях'''
|-
! Instrumental
| услові'''ями''' || значін'''ями''' || пол'''ями''' || сердц'''ями'''
|-
!colspan="2"|English
|condition
|meaning
|field
|heart
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Declension type III: other feminines ====
All nouns in this type are feminine. The paradigm can be identified by the following suffixes in the nominative singular case: a ''paired consonant'' ('''-cons.+ь'''),{{efn-lr|name=pairing|The terms "paired" and "unpaired" refer to a consonant's use with the ''soft sign'', the letter '''ь'''. Consonants that can be palatalized with the soft sign are referred to as "paired consonants", as in the case of '''н/нь'''. Others that are inherently hard or soft and never appear with '''ь''' are referred to as "unpaired consonants", as in the cases of the letters '''к''' or '''ч'''.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=33}}}} an ''unpaired [[palato-alveolar consonant]]'' ('''-ш''', '''-ч''', '''щ''', '''-ж''', or '''-дж'''),{{efn-lr|name=hushers}} or the suffix '''-ов'''. Additionally, the noun {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|мати|maty|mother}} is also part of this type.
{|class=wikitable
|+Feminine Nouns Ending in a Consonant and 'Mati'{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=57-59}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" | !! Paired Cons.!! colspan="2" | Palato-Alveolar Cons. !! -ов !! мати
|-
!rowspan="6"|Sg.
! Nominative
| тїнь || ніч || мыш || церков || мати/ матїрь
|-
! Accusative
| тїнь || ніч || мыш || церков || матїрь
|-
! Genitive
| тїн'''и''' || ноч'''і''' || мыш'''ы''' || церкв'''и''' || матер'''и'''
|-
! Dative
| тїн'''и''' || ноч'''і''' || мыш'''і''' || церкв'''и''' || матер'''и'''
|-
! Locative
| тїн'''и''' || ноч'''і''' || мыш'''і''' || церкв'''и''' || матер'''и'''
|-
! Instrumental{{efn|The declension for all feminine nouns in the instrumental case is the same ('''-ов''') across all declension types.}}
| тїн'''ёв''' || ноч'''ов''' || мыш'''ов''' || церков'''лёв''' || матїр'''ёв'''
|- <!--------- PLURAL ------------>
! rowspan="6"|Pl.
! Nominative
| тїн'''и''' || ноч'''і''' || мыш'''ы''' || церкв'''и''' || матер'''и'''
|-
! Accusative
| тїн'''и''' || ноч'''і''' || мыш'''ы''' || церкв'''и''' || матер'''и'''
|-
! Genitive
| тїн'''ей''' || ноч'''ей''' || мыш'''ей''' || церкв'''ей''' || матер'''ей'''
|-
! Dative
| тїн'''ям''' || ноч'''ам''' || мыш'''ам''' || церкв'''ам''' || матер'''ям'''
|-
! Locative
| тїн'''ях''' || ноч'''ах''' || мыш'''ах''' || церкв'''ах''' || матер'''ях'''
|-
! Instrumental
| тїн'''ями''' || ноч'''ами''' || мыш'''ами''' || церкв'''ами''' || матер'''ями'''
|-
! colspan="2" | English
| shadow || night || mouse || church || mother
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Declension type IV: neuters ending in -а/-я ====
This declension paradigm is used very rarely. It entirely consists of grammatically neuter nouns. This paradigm can be identified by the '''-a''' suffix in the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the appearance of the [[affix]] '''-t-''' between the stem and suffix in other cases. There is ''no variation'' in this paradigm: all nouns decline in an identical manner.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=60}}

Type IV is predominantly made up of words referring to the young of animals and humans. However, this should not be taken as a hard rule as some nouns which ''historically'' declined differently (e.g. {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|вымя|vŷmja|udder}} and {{langx|rue|label=none|translit-std=BGN/PCGN|горня|hornja|cup, mug}}), now decline according to this paradigm instead.{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=60}}

{|class=wikitable
|+Neuter Nouns Ending in '''-a''' and '''-я'''{{sfn|Pugh|2009|p=60-61}}
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="1"|
!colspan="5" rowspan="1"|
|-
!rowspan="6"|Sg.
! Nominative
| гуся || гача || вымя/ вымня
|-
! Accusative
| гуся || гача || вымя/ вымня
|-
! Genitive
| гуся'''ти''' || гача'''ти''' || вымя'''ти'''/ вымня'''ти'''
|-
! Dative
| гуся'''ти''' || гача'''ти''' || вымя'''ти'''/ вымня'''ти'''
|-
! Locative
| гуся'''ти''' || гача'''ти''' || вымя'''ти'''/ вымня'''ти'''
|-
! Instrumental
| гуся'''тём''' || гача'''тём''' || вымя'''тём'''/ вымня'''тём'''
|- <!--------- PLURAL ------------>
! rowspan="6"|Pl.
! Nominative
| гуся'''та''' || гача'''та''' || вымя'''та'''/ вымня'''та'''
|-
! Accusative
| гуся'''та''' || гача'''та''' || вымя'''та'''/ вымня'''та'''
|-
! Genitive
| гуся'''та''' || гача'''та''' || вымя'''та'''/ вымня'''та'''
|-
! Dative
| гуся'''там''' || гача'''там''' || вымя'''там'''/ вымня'''там'''
|-
! Locative
| гуся'''тах''' || гача'''тах''' || вымя'''тах'''/ вымня'''тах'''
|-
! Instrumental
| гуся'''тами''' || гача'''тами''' || вымя'''тами'''/ вымня'''тами'''
|-
!colspan="2"|English
| gosling || colt, foal || udder
|}
{{notelist}}